| Community Tool Box

 

VMOSA (Vision, Mission, Objectives, Strategies, and Action Plans) is a practical planning process used to help community groups define a vision and develop practical ways to enact change. VMOSA helps your organization set and achieve short term goals while keeping sight of your long term vision. Implementing this planning process into your group's efforts supports developing a clear mission, building consensus, and grounding your group's dreams. This section explores how and when to implement VMOSA into your organization's planning process.

What is VMOSA?

One way to make that journey is through strategic planning, the process by which a group defines its own "VMOSA;" that is, its Vision, Mission, Objectives, Strategies, and Action Plans. VMOSA is a practical planning process that can be used by any community organization or initiative. This comprehensive planning tool can help your organization by providing a blueprint for moving from dreams to actions to positive outcomes for your community.

In this section, we will give a general overview of the process, and touch briefly on each of the individual parts. In Examples, we'll show you how an initiative to prevent adolescent pregnancy used the VMOSA process effectively. Then, in Tools, we offer you a possible agenda for a planning retreat, should your organization decide to use this process. Finally, the remaining sections in this chapter will walk you through the steps needed to fully develop each portion of the process.

Why should your organization use VMOSA?

Why should your organization use this planning process? There are many good reasons, including all of the following:

• The VMOSA process grounds your dreams. It makes good ideas possible by laying out what needs to happen in order to achieve your vision.
• By creating this process in a group effort (taking care to involve both people affected by the problem and those with the abilities to change it), it allows your organization to build consensus around your focus and the necessary steps your organization should take.
• The process gives you an opportunity to develop your vision and mission together with those in the community who will be affected by what you do.  That means that your work is much more likely to address the community’s real needs and desires, rather than what you think they might be.  It also means community ownership of the vision and mission, putting everyone on the same page and greatly increasing the chances that any effort will be successful.
• VMOSA allows your organization to focus on your short-term goals while keeping sight of your long-term vision and mission.

When should you use VMOSA?

So, when should you use this strategic planning process? Of course, it always makes sense for your organization to have the direction and order it gives you, but there are some times it makes particularly good sense to use this process. These times include:

• When you are starting a new organization.
• When your organization is starting a new initiative or large project, or is going to begin work in a new direction.
• When your group is moving into a new phase of an ongoing effort.
• When you are trying to invigorate an older initiative that has lost its focus or momentum.
• When you’re applying for new funding or to a new funder.  It’s important under these circumstances to clarify your vision and mission so that any funding you seek supports what your organization actually stands for.  Otherwise, you can wind up with strings attached to the money that require you to take a direction not in keeping with your organization’s real purpose or philosophy.

Let's look briefly at each of the individual ingredients important in this process. Then, in the next few sections we'll look at each of these in a more in-depth manner, and explain how to go about developing each step of the planning process.

Vision (the dream)

Your vision communicates what your organization believes are the ideal conditions for your community – how things would look if the issue important to you were perfectly addressed. This utopian dream is generally described by one or more phrases or vision statements, which are brief proclamations that convey the community's dreams for the future. By developing a vision statement, your organization makes the beliefs and governing principles of your organization clear to the greater community (as well as to your own staff, participants, and volunteers).

There are certain characteristics that most vision statements have in common. In general, vision statements should be:

• Understood and shared by members of the community
• Broad enough to encompass a variety of local perspectives
• Inspiring and uplifting to everyone involved in your effort
• Easy to communicate - for example, they should be short enough to fit on a T-shirt

Here are a few vision statements which meet the above criteria:

• Healthy children
• Safe streets, safe neighborhoods
• Every house a home
• Education for all
• Peace on earth

Mission (the what and why)

Developing mission statements are the next step in the action planning process. An organization's mission statement describes what the group is going to do, and why it's going to do that. Mission statements are similar to vision statements, but they're more concrete, and they are definitely more "action-oriented" than vision statements. The mission might refer to a problem, such as an inadequate housing, or a goal, such as providing access to health care for everyone. And, while they don't go into a lot of detail, they start to hint - very broadly - at how your organization might go about fixing the problems it has noted. Some general guiding principles about mission statements are that they are:

• Concise. Although not as short a phrase as a vision statement, a mission statement should still get its point across in one sentence.
• Outcome-oriented. Mission statements explain the overarching outcomes your organization is working to achieve.
• Inclusive. While mission statements do make statements about your group's overarching goals, it's very important that they do so very broadly. Good mission statements are not limiting in the strategies or sectors of the community that may become involved in the project.

The following mission statements are examples that meet the above criteria.

• "To promote child health and development through a comprehensive family and community initiative."
• "To create a thriving African American community through development of jobs, education, housing, and cultural pride.
• "To develop a safe and healthy neighborhood through collaborative planning, community action, and policy advocacy."

While vision and mission statements themselves should be short, it often makes sense for an organization to include its deeply held beliefs or philosophy, which may in fact define both its work and the organization itself. One way to do this without sacrificing the directness of the vision and mission statements is to include guiding principles as an addition to the statements. These can lay out the beliefs of the organization while keeping its vision and mission statements short and to the point.

Objectives (how much of what will be accomplished by when)

Once an organization has developed its mission statement, its next step is to develop the specific objectives that are focused on achieving that mission. Objectives refer to specific measurable results for the initiative's broad goals. An organization's objectives generally lay out how much of what will be accomplished by when. For example, one of several objectives for a community initiative to promote care and caring for older adults might be: "By 2025 (by when), to increase by 20% (how much) those older adults reporting that they are in daily contact with someone who cares about them (of what)."

There are three basic types of objectives. They are:

• Behavioral objectives. These objectives look at changing the behaviors of people (what they are doing and saying) and the products (or results) of their behaviors. For example, a neighborhood improvement group might develop an objective around having an increased amount of home repair taking place (the behavior) or of improved housing (the result).
• Community-level outcome objectives. These are related to behavioral outcome objectives, but are more focused more on a community level instead of an individual level. For example, the same group might suggest increasing the percentage of decent affordable housing in the community as a community-level outcome objective.
• Process objectives. These are the objectives that refer to the implementation of activities necessary to achieve other objectives. For example, the group might adopt a comprehensive plan for improving neighborhood housing.

It's important to understand that these different types of objectives aren't mutually exclusive. Most groups will develop objectives in all three categories. Examples of objectives include:

• By December 2030, to increase by 30% parent engagement (i.e., talking, playing, reading) with children under 2 years of age. (Behavioral objective)
• By 2025, to have made a 40% increase in youth graduating from high school. (Community -level outcome objective)
• By the year 2026, increase by 30% the percentage of families that own their home. (Community-level outcome objective)
• By December of this year, implement the volunteer training program for all volunteers. (Process objective)

Strategies (the how)

The next step in the process of VMOSA is developing your strategies. Strategies explain how the initiative will reach its objectives. Generally, organizations will have a wide variety of strategies that include people from all of the different parts, or sectors, of the community. These strategies range from the very broad, which encompass people and resources from many different parts of the community, to the very specific, which aim at carefully defined areas.

Examples of broad strategies include:

• A child health program might use social marketing to promote adult involvement with children
• An adolescent pregnancy initiative might decide to increase access to contraceptives in the community
• An urban revitalization project might enhance the artistic life of the community by encouraging artists to perform in the area

Five types of specific strategies can help guide most interventions. They are:

• Providing information and enhancing skills (e.g., offer skills training in conflict management)
• Enhancing services and support (e.g., start a mentoring programs for youth experiencing increased risk)
• Modify access, barriers, and opportunities (such as offering scholarships to students who would be otherwise unable to attend college)
• Change the consequences of efforts (e.g., provide incentives for community members to volunteer)
• Modify policies (e.g., change business policies to allow parents and guardians and volunteers to spend more time with young children)

Action plan (what change will happen; who will do what by when to make it happen)

Finally, an organization's action plan describes in great detail exactly how strategies will be implemented to accomplish the objectives developed earlier in this process. The plan refers to: a) specific (community and systems) changes to be sought, and b) the specific action steps necessary to bring about changes in all of the relevant sectors, or parts, of the community.

The key aspects of the intervention or (community and systems) changes to be sought are outlined in the action plan. For example, in a program whose mission is to increase youth interest in politics, one of the strategies might be to teach students about the electoral system. Some of the action steps, then, might be to develop age-appropriate materials for students, to hold mock elections for candidates in local schools, and to include some teaching time in the curriculum.

Action steps are developed for each component of the intervention or (community and systems) changes to be sought. These include:

• Action step(s): What will happen
• Person(s) responsible: Who will do what
• Date to be completed: Timing of each action step
• Resources required: Resources and support (both what is needed and what's available )
• Barriers or resistance, and a plan to overcome them!
• Collaborators: Who else should know about this action

Here are two examples of action steps, graphed out so you can easily follow the flow:

 

Action Step	Person(s) Responsible	Date to be Completed	Resources Required	Potential Barriers or Resistance	Collaborators
Draft a social marketing plan	Terry McNeil (from marketing firm)	April 2026	$15,000 (remaining donated)	None anticipated	Members of the business action group
Ask local corporations to introduce flex-time for parents and mentors	Maria Suarez (from business action group)	September 2028	5 hours; 2 hour proposal prep; 3 hours for meeting and transportation	Corporation: may see this as expensive; must convince them of benefit of the plan for the corporation	Members of the business action group and the school action group

 

Of course, once you have finished designing the strategic plan or "VMOSA" for your organization, you are just beginning in this work. Your action plan will need to be tried and tested and revised, then tried and tested and revised again. You'll need to obtain feedback from community members, and add and subtract elements of your plan based on that feedback.

In Summary

Everyone has a dream. But the most successful individuals - and community organizations - take that dream and find a way to make it happen. VMOSA helps groups do just that. This strategic planning process helps community groups define their dream, set their goals, define ways to meet those goals, and finally, develop practical ways bring about needed changes.

In this section, you've gained a general understanding of the strategic planning process. If you believe your organization might benefit from using this process, we invite you to move on to the next sections of this chapter, which explain in some depth how to design and develop your own strategic plan.

You have defined your group's:

___Vision (the dream)

___Mission (what and why)

___Objectives (how much of what by whom)

___Strategies (how)

___Action plans (who will do what by when)

___You understand when to use VMOSA, the strategic planning process

Example 1: Live Well Boone County

 

In early 2013, the Columbia/Boone County Department of Public Health and Human Services embarked on a comprehensive process to identify the health needs of the Boone County, Missouri community. The process included both an extensive review of community data, as well as a gathering of input from a variety of stakeholders, community members, and public health partners through the six-phase Mobilizing for Action through Planning and Partnerships (MAPP) model, created by the National Association of County and City Health Officials (NACCHO) and the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) Public Health Program Practice Office.

The quantitative and qualitative data led to the development of the department’s Community Health Assessment (CHA) and the subsequent Community Health Improvement Plan (CHIP) Live Well Boone County, taking information from the CHA and turning it into actionable steps to improve the health of Boone County.

Read more from Community Commons here.

Example 2: Equity and Social Justice Strategic Plan

The six-year Equity and Social Justice Strategic Plan represents a critical opportunity for King County to do ground-breaking work:

• Applying a theory of change that fundamentally shifts the county away from policies and practices that react to problems and crises toward investments that address the root causes of inequities, ultimately leading to better quality of life and greater prosperity in all of their communities.
• Balancing a bold vision with actionable and measurable objectives.
• Allowing for innovation and adaptability across King County government to help them be dynamic and culturally responsive, moving towards the goal of being racially justice internally and in the community.

Their Equity and Social Justice strategies as One King County are to invest upstream and where needs are greatest, in employees and in community partnerships. And they will do this with accountable and transparent leadership.

Read more about the plan here.

Download a full copy of the plan here.

Tool 1: Action Planning Template

This is a downloadable, editable template you are welcome to adapt and use for your group’s purposes. There is a space for noting the overall goal area, SMART+C objectives, strategies, and related action steps for implementation. 

Keep the updated action plan accessible to the group, with regular reviews during coalition meetings to keep action items moving forward. 

 

Action Planning Template

Download the Action Planning Template (docx)

Goal:
Overall goal statement:
Overall objective(s):  Note: Use SMART+C formatting
Priority focus areas:

 

Focus Area 1:
Objective(s):
Strategy 1:
Action to be taken:	Person(s) responsible:	By when:	Resources needed:
Strategy 2:
Action to be taken:	Person(s) responsible:	By when:	Resources needed:
Strategy 3:
Action to be taken:	Person(s) responsible:	By when:	Resources needed:

 

Focus Area 2:
Objective(s):
Strategy 1:
Action to be taken:	Person(s) responsible:	By when:	Resources needed:
Strategy 2:
Action to be taken:	Person(s) responsible:	By when:	Resources needed:
Strategy 3:
Action to be taken:	Person(s) responsible:	By when:	Resources needed:

 

Focus Area 3:
Objective(s):
Strategy 1:
Action to be taken:	Person(s) responsible:	By when:	Resources needed:
Strategy 2:
Action to be taken:	Person(s) responsible:	By when:	Resources needed:
Strategy 3:
Action to be taken:	Person(s) responsible:	By when:	Resources needed:

 

Tool 2: Action Planning Guides from the KU Center for Community Health and Development

Community and Public Health Action Planning Guides

• Reducing Risk for Chronic Disease
• Promoting Health for All: Improving Access and Eliminating Disparities in Community Health
• Promoting Healthy Living and Preventing Chronic Disease
• Your Action Planning Guide for Promoting Full Community Participation Among People with Disabilities

Child and Youth Health and Development Action Planning Guides

• Preventing Adolescent Substance Abuse
• Preventing Adolescent Pregnancy
• Preventing Youth Violence
• Preventing Child Abuse and Neglect
• Youth Development
• Promoting Child Well-Being

Community Development and Capacity Building Action Planning Guides

• Promoting Urban Neighborhood Development: Improving Housing, Jobs, Education, Safety and Health, and Human Development
• Work Group Evaluation Handbook
• Concerns Report Handbook: Planning for Community Health

 

An Example Outline Using Two Half-Day Working Sessions

Action Planning Workshop Outline: Two Half-Day Working Sessions

Overall Process: An effective action planning session allows a diverse group of participants to:

• Clarify common purpose - Through listening, gathering and reviewing data, and building a shared vision and mission.
• Generate and critique options - Through consideration of risk and protective factors, broad and specific strategies, and the community's framework for action, it identifies particular changes in communities and systems (i.e., new or modified programs, policies, and practices) to be sought to achieve the mission.
• Obtain consensus about community and systems changes to be sought - Through ballot voting about the importance and feasibility of proposed changes, or by having participants use "dots" to register preferences for changes to be sought.
• Decide how to proceed as a group - Through open discussion, the group identifies action steps (i.e., who will do what by when) to bring about the identified changes.

Background Work Before the Session/Workshop:

• Those developing the workshop should review the VMOSA process
• Hold listening sessions with a variety of people including those most affected
• Document the issues or problems, including data on the challenges of the issue your organization is facing

Session/Day One (1/2 Day)

8:30: Continental Breakfast
9:00: Welcome and Introductions
9:20: Overview of the Action Planning Process
9:30: VMOSA: What is VMOSA (Vision, Mission, Objectives, Strategies, Action Plans)?
9:45: Vision: Promoting Neighborhood Development (Creating your own community's vision)
10:15: Mission: What are we trying to accomplish and why? (Stating your mission).
10:45: Objectives: How much of what will we accomplish by when? (Creating your objectives).
11:15: Strategies: How will we get there? (Identifying a set of broad and specific strategies).
12:15: Questions/ Wrap Up:Group Summarizes Accomplishments of Session/Day One
12:30: Adjourn

Product of Session/Day One:

A new (or renewed) statement of the group's Vision, Mission, Objectives, and Strategies. (These may require review or approval by a broader group.)

Homework Before Session/Day Two:

Review the "Inventory of Potential Community and Systems Changes for Promoting Neighborhood Development." Bring recommended changes to be sought: a) by specific strategy (i.e., providing information and enhancing skills, modifying access, barriers, and opportunities, enhancing services and support, changing consequences, and modifying policies) and b) by community sector (e.g., Community Organizations, Faith Communities, Government).

Day/Session Two (1/2 Day)

9:00: Review of Session/Day One and Overview of Session/Day Two
9:15: Identifying Targets and Agents of Changes: Who should benefit? Who can contribute?
9:30: Identifying Community and Systems Changes: By Strategy (work in small groups of 6-8 organized by strategy)
10:15: Small Group Reports
10:45: Identifying Community and Systems Changes: By Sector (work in small groups of 6-8 organized by sector)
11:15: Small Group Reports
11:45: Building consensus on community and systems changes to be sought (e.g., using dots, voting)
12:15: Next Steps:

• Building Consensus/Seeking Approval from the larger group (if appropriate)
• Identifying Action Steps for each change to be sought (who will do what by when)
• Plan for Documenting Progress and Promoting Celebration and Renewal

12:45: Questions/ Wrap Up - Group Summarizes Accomplishments of Session/Day Two
1:00: Adjourn

Product of Session/Day Two:

A set of community and systems changes (i.e., new or modified programs, policies and practices to be sought in each relevant sector of the community (e.g., Community Organizations, Faith Communities, Government).

Tool 3: The GTE Toolkit (Getting To Equity In Obesity Prevention)

This toolkit from the Council on Black Health addresses the need to include an equity component in the planning and implementation of policy, systems, and environmental change approaches (PSE) undertaken to curb adverse trends in obesity and related health consequences.

PSE approaches focus on circumstances that make it possible or easier for people in a given set of circumstances to adopt and maintain healthy behaviors. PSE approaches can work together with approaches that work directly with individuals. 

The toolkit is based on the Getting to Equity in Obesity Prevention Framework (GTE) for planning and evaluating equity-focused PSE change approaches that support:

• Food acquisition and healthy eating
• Active living and meeting physical activity guidelines
• Prevention and management of obesity and related health risks

To learn more about this amazing set of tools, click this link to go to the GTE Toolkit website.

Tool 4: Responding to Threats and Challenges Planning Tool

Responding to Threats and Challenges Planning Tool is a resource developed by the Collective Impact Forum to help organizations equip themselves to face rising threats. The tool provides a structured approach to identifying risks, addressing their impact, and developing strategies for mitigation.

Tool 5: The Scenario Planning Toolkit

The Scenario Planning Toolkit is a resource created by The Bridgespan Group to help nonprofit organizations navigate periods of uncertainty. Whether it's a global pandemic or an election year, scenario planning helps guide strategic decision-making while keeping the organization's mission at the forefront. 

A PowerPoint presentation summarizing the major points in the section.

Creating your organization's vision and mission statements are the first two steps in the VMOSA action planning process. Developing a vision and mission statement is crucial to the success of community initiatives. These statements explain your group's aspirations in a concise manner, help your organization focus on what is really important, and provide a basis for developing other aspects of your strategic plan. This section provides a guide for developing and implementing your organization's vision and mission statements.

What is a vision statement?

Your vision is your dream. It's what your organization believes are the ideal conditions for your community; that is, how things would look if the issue important to you were completely, perfectly addressed. It might be a world without war, or a community in which all people are treated as equals, regardless of gender or racial background.

Whatever your organization's dream is, it may be well articulated by one or more vision statements, which are short phrases or sentences that convey your community's hopes for the future. By developing a vision statement or statements, your organization clarifies the beliefs and governing principles of your organization, first for yourselves, and then for the greater community.

There are certain characteristics that most vision statements have in common. In general, vision statements should be:

• Understood and shared by members of the community
• Broad enough to include a diverse variety of local perspectives
• Inspiring and uplifting to everyone involved in your effort
• Easy to communicate - for example, they are generally short enough to fit on a T-shirt

Here are some examples of vision statements that meet the above criteria:         

• A community where all individuals and families achieve their human potential. 
• CALCASA envisions a world free from sexual violence.  
• A future where tobacco is a thing of the past. (Truth Initiative) 
• A world without Alzheimer’s Disease. (Alzheimer’s Association)
• The United States is a humane community in which all animals are treated with respect and kindness. (ASPCA)
• A world where everyone has a decent place to live. (Habitat for Humanity)

What is a mission statement?

The next step of the action planning process is to ground your vision in practical terms. This is where developing a mission statement comes in. An organization's mission statement describes what the group is going to do and why it's going to do that. An example is "Promoting care and caring at the end of life through coalitions and advocacy."

Mission statements are similar to vision statements, in that they, too, look at the big picture. However, they're more concrete, and they are definitely more "action-oriented" than vision statements. Your vision statement should inspire people to dream; your mission statement should inspire them to action.

The mission statement might refer to a problem, such as an inadequate housing, or a goal, such as providing universal access to health care. And, while they don't go into a lot of detail, they hint - very broadly - at how your organization might fix these problems or reach these goals. Some general guiding principles about mission statements are that they are:

• Concise. While not as short as vision statements, mission statements generally still get their point across in one sentence.
• Outcome-oriented. Mission statements explain the fundamental outcomes your organization is working to achieve.
• Inclusive. While mission statements do make statements about your group's key goals, it's very important that they do so very broadly. Good mission statements are not limiting in the strategies or sectors of the community that may become involved in the project.

The following examples should help you understand what we mean by effective mission statements.

• Promoting community health and development by connecting people, ideas and resources. (Community Tool Box)
• The California Coalition Against Sexual Assault (CALCASA) provides leadership, vision and resources to rape crisis centers, individuals and other entities committed to ending sexual violence.
• Our mission is to eliminate Alzheimer's disease through the advancement of research; to provide and enhance care and support for all affected; and to reduce the risk of dementia through the promotion of brain health. (Alzheimer’s Association)
• The mission of the ASPCA, as stated by Henry Bergh in 1866, is "to provide effective means for the prevention of cruelty to animals throughout the United States”.
• Seeking to put God’s love into action, Habitat for Humanity brings people together to build homes, communities and hope.

Why should you create vision and mission statements?

Why is it important that your organization develops vision and mission statements like those above? First of all, these statements can help your organization focus on what is really important. Although your organization knows what you are trying to do to improve your community, it's easy to lose sight of this when dealing with day-to-day organizational hassles. Your vision and mission statements remind members what is important.

Second, your vision and mission statements give other individuals and organizations a snapshot view of what your group is and what it wants to accomplish. When your vision and mission statements are easily visible (for example, if they are on the letterhead of your stationery), people learn about your organization without having to work hard for the information. Then, those with common interests can take the time necessary to learn more. This efficiency is very helpful when you are recruiting other people and organizations to join your effort.

Finally, vision and mission statements focus members on their common purpose . Not only do the statements themselves serve as a constant reminder of what is important to your organization, the process of developing them allows people to see the organization as "theirs”. Creating these statements builds motivation as members will believe in something more completely if they had a hand in developing it.

Having a clear and compelling vision statement has other advantages, such as:

• Drawing people to common work
• Giving hope for a better future
• Inspiring community members to realize their dreams through positive, effective action
• Providing a basis for developing the other aspects of your action planning process: your mission, objectives, strategies, and action plans

Having a clear and compelling mission statement also has more advantages, such as:

• Converting the broad dreams of your vision into more specific, action-oriented terms
• Explaining your goals to interested parties in a clear and concise manner
• Enhancing your organization's image as being competent and professional, thus reassuring funding sources that their investment was (or would be!) a smart choice

How do you create vision and mission statements?

Now having a better understanding of vision and mission statements, your organization has the tools to develop your unique statements. If your group has already developed vision and mission statements, you might wish to look at them in light of the criteria we discussed above. If members of your organization feel your current statements could be improved, this process can be easily used to modify them. Let’s begin.

Learn what is important to people in your community

As developing your vision and mission statements is the first step in creating your action plan, it is especially important that these first steps are well grounded in community beliefs and values. Awareness of the important issues in your community is critical for the development of a strong, effective, and enduring action group.

Therefore, one of the first steps you should take when developing the vision and mission of your organization is to define the issue(s) that matter most to people in your community. How do you go about doing so?

There are many different ways you can gather this information, including:

Conducting "public forums" or "listening sessions" with members of the community to gather ideas, thoughts, and opinions about how they would like to see the community transformed.

In public forums or listening sessions, people gather from throughout the community to talk about what is important to them. These meetings are usually led by facilitators, who guide a discussion of what people perceive to be the community's strengths and problems, and what people wish the community was like. Someone typically records these meetings, and a transcript of what is said provides a basis for subsequent planning.

Holding focus groups with the people interested in addressing the issue(s), including community leaders, people most affected by the issues, businesses, church leaders, teachers, etc.

Focus groups are similar to public forums and listening sessions, but they are smaller and more intimate. Generally speaking, they are comprised of small groups of people with similar backgrounds, so they will feel comfortable talking openly about what concerns them. For example, the group members are generally about the same age, are of the same ethnic group, or have another common identity and/or experience. Focus groups function like public forums, and also use facilitators and recorders to focus and document discussion.

Your organization may hold focus groups with several different groups of people to get the most holistic view of the issue at hand. For example, if your organization is involved in child health, you might have one focus group with health care providers, another with parents or children, and still another with teachers. Once you have a rough mission statement, you might again hold a focus group for feedback.

Obtaining interviews with people in leadership and service positions, including such individuals as local politicians, school administrators, hospital and social service agency staff, about what problems or needs they believe exist in your community.

Often, these individuals will have both facts and experiences to back up their perspectives. If so, this data can be used later if and when you apply for funding, or when you request community support to address the issues. More information on this topic can be found in Chapter 3, Section 12: Conducting Interviews.

It’s important to realize that these different ways of gathering information from your community are not mutually exclusive. In fact, if you have the resources, it is recommended to do all of the above: to have some time for the community at large to respond, then spend more time in focus groups with the people you believe might contribute greatly to (or be most affected by) some of the issues brought up in the public forum. And finally, some one-on-one time with community leaders can strengthen your knowledge and purpose; remember, there are community members who have been wrestling with the same issues you are now looking at for a long time. Take advantage of that experience so you don’t waste time on something that’s already been done.

Decide what to ask

No matter if you are talking to one person or a crowd, your purpose is the same: to learn what matters in your community. Here's a list of questions you might use to focus your discussions with community members. These questions may be used for individual interviews, focus groups, public forums, or in any other way you choose to gather information.

• What is your dream/vision for our community?
• What would you like to see change?
• What kind of community (or program, policy, school, neighborhood, etc.) do we want to create?
• What do you see as the community's (or school's, neighborhood's, etc.) major issues or problems?
• What do you see as the community's major strengths and assets?
• What do you think should be the purpose of this organization (or effort)?
• Why should these issues be addressed?
• What would success look like?

When your organization is gathering input, the facilitator should encourage everyone to share their most idealistic, hopeful, and positive ideas. Don't worry right now about what's practical and what's not - this can be narrowed down later. Encourage everyone to be bold and participate, and to remember that you are trying to articulate a vision of a better community.

Decide on the general focus of your organization

Once members of your organization have heard what the community has to say, it's time to decide the general focus of your organization or initiative. First of all, what topic is most important to your organization and your community? For example, will you tackle urban development or public health issues? Racism or economic opportunity?

A second question to answer is at what level will your organization work. Will your organization begin only in one school, or in one neighborhood, or in your city? Or will your initiative's focus be broader, working on a state, national, or even international level?

These are questions for which there are no easy answers. Your organization will need to consider lessons learned from the community and decide through thoughtful discussion the best direction for your organization. We suggest you open this discussion up to everyone in your organization to obtain the best results.

However, if your organization is receiving grant money or major funding from a particular agency, the grant maker may specify what the general goal of your group should be. For example, if your group accepts a grant to reduce child hunger, at least part of its mission will be devoted to this purpose. Even in these circumstances, however, the community should determine the ultimate vision and mission that will best advance what matters to local people.

Develop your vision and mission statements

Now that your organization has a clearer understanding of what the group will do and why, you are in a prime position to develop the statements that will capture your ideas.

As you are looking at potential statements, remember to keep them broad and enduring. Vision and mission statements wide in scope allow for a sense of continuity with a community's history, traditions, and broad purposes. Additionally, vision and mission statements that are built to last will guide efforts both today and tomorrow.

Vision Statements

First of all, remind members of your organization that it often takes several vision statements to fully capture the dreams of those involved in a community improvement effort. You don't need - or even want - just one "perfect" phrase. Encourage people to suggest all of their ideas and write them down, possibly on poster paper at the front of the room, so people can be further inspired by the ideas of others. As you do this, remind the group of:

• What you have learned from your discussions with community members
• What your organization has decided will be your focus
• What you learned about vision statements at the beginning of this section

If you have a hard time getting started, you might wish to check out some of the vision statements in this section's Examples. You might ask yourself how well they meet the above suggestions.

After you have brainstormed a list of suggestions, your group can discuss critically the different ideas. Oftentimes, some of the vision statements will jump out at you - someone will suggest it, and people will just instantly think, "That's it!"

If it’s more complicated than that, you should ask yourselves the following questions:

• Will it draw people to common work?
• Does it give hope for a better future?
• Will it inspire community members to realize their dreams through positive, effective action?
• Does it provide a basis for developing the other aspects of your action planning process?

A final caution: try not to get caught up in having a certain number of vision statements for your organization. Whether you ultimately end up with two vision statements or ten, what is most important is that the statements together provide a holistic view of your organization’s vision.

Mission Statements

The process of writing your mission statement is similar to developing your vision statements. The same brainstorming process can help you develop possibilities for your mission statement. Remember, though, that unlike vision statements, you will want to develop a single mission statement for your work. After brainstorming possible statements, you will want to answer questions for each one:

• Does it describe what your organization will do and why it will do it?
• Is it concise (one sentence)?
• Is it outcome oriented?
• Is it inclusive of the goals and people who may become involved in the organization?

Together, your organization can decide on a statement that best meets these criteria.

Obtain consensus on your vision and mission statements

Once members of your organization have developed your vision and mission statements, your next step might be to learn what other community members think of them before you use the statements regularly.

To do this, you could talk to the same community leaders or focus group members you spoke to originally. First of all, this can help you ensure that they don't find the statements offensive in any way. For example, an initiative that wants to include young men more fully in its adolescent pregnancy prevention project might have "Young men in Asheville are the best informed" as one of their vision statements. But taken out of context, some people community members might believe this statement means young men are given better information or education than young women, thus offending another group of people.

Second, you will want to ensure that community members agree that the statements together capture the spirit of what they believe and desire. Your organization might find it has omitted something very important by mistake.

Decide how you will use your vision and mission statements

Finally, it's important to remember that while developing the statements is a huge step for your organization worth celebration, there is more work to be done. Next, you have to decide how to use these statements. Otherwise, all of your hard work would lead to nothing. The point is to get the message across.

There are many ways in which your organization may choose to spread its vision and mission statements. To name just a few examples, you might:

• Add them to your letterhead or stationery
• Use them on your website
• Give away T-shirts, or bookmarks, or other small gifts with them
• Add them to your press kit
• Use them when you give interviews
• Display them on the cover of your annual report

...and so on. Again, this is a step that will use all of your creativity.

In Summary

Developing effective vision and mission statements are two of the most important tasks your organization will tackle because almost everything else you do is affected by these statements. We hope that this section has allowed you to feel more confident in your group's ability to create successful and inspiring vision and mission statements. Remember, think broadly and boldly! Good luck!

___You have shared your understanding of vision and mission statements with members of your organization

___You understand what is important to people in your community

___You have decided on the general focus (topic and scope) of your organization

___You have developed your vision and mission statements

___You have obtained consensus on your vision and mission statements

___You have decided how to use your vision and mission statements

Example: A coalition identifies new members

A community coalition has formed a new task force on transportation to respond to the needs of a rural community to get clients to appointments, parents to schools, employees to their jobs and to generally help isolated individuals and families get around more.

At the first meeting of the task force, the coalition coordinator, the head of the council on aging, two interested parents and someone from the literacy center show up. For a while they ponder how they are going to get more people to the task force and then they brainstorm a list. They think of all the individuals who are concerned about the problem and in so doing add the VNA, the school counselors, free meals programs, and others. They begin to think about who could help solve the problem and they think about all the people in the community who actually have vehicles. This includes the mental health center, the council on aging, the programs for the developmentally disabledand the schools in the public sector and the private sector, the local taxi and bus companies.

All the names are placed up on the list. Then they turn to the coalition coordinator and say, "Why don't you give them a call?" She in turn says, "No, let's go though the list and see which one of us knows any of these people or who else knows them and let's invite them to the next meeting."

Following that strategy, they double their membership by the next meeting.

Tool: Developing a Vision and Mission Statement

Download a worksheet in MS Word here.

A PowerPoint presentation summarizing the major points in the section.

To obtain results, we need to articulate the outcomes we desire.

This section focuses on developing specific objectives that will help make your vision and mission a reality.

What are objectives?

Objectives are the specific measurable results of the initiative. Objectives specify how much of what will be accomplished by when. For example, one of several objectives for a community initiative to promote care and caring for older adults might be: "By 2024 (by when), to increase by 20% (how much) older adults reporting that they are in daily contact with someone who cares about them (of what)."

There are three basic types of objectives. They are:

• Process objectives. These are the objectives that provide the groundwork or implementation necessary to achieve your other objectives. For example, the group might adopt a comprehensive plan for improving neighborhood housing. In this case, adoption of the plan itself is the objective.
• Behavioral objectives. These objectives look at changing the behaviors of people (what they are doing and saying) and the products (or results) of their behaviors. For example, a neighborhood improvement group might develop an objective for having an increased amount of home repair taking place (the behavior) and fewer houses with broken or boarded-up windows (the result).
• Community-level outcome objectives. These are often the product or result of behavior change in many people. They are focused on change at the community level instead of an individual level. For example, the same neighborhood group might have an objective of increasing the percentage of people living in the community with adequate housing as a community-level outcome objective. 

It's important to understand that these different types of objectives aren't mutually exclusive. Most groups will develop objectives in all three categories.

Objectives should be S.M.A.R.T. + C.:

• Specific. That is, they tell how much (e.g., 10%) of what is to be achieved (e.g., what behavior of whom or what outcome) by when (e.g., by 2025)?
• Measurable. Information concerning the objective can be collected, detected, or obtained.
• Achievable. It is feasible to pull them off.
• Relevant to the mission. Your organization has a clear understanding of how these objectives fit in with the overall vision and mission of the group.
• Timed. Your organization has developed a timeline (a portion of which is made clear in the objectives) by which they will be achieved.
• Challenging. They stretch the group to set its aims on significant improvements that are important to members of the community.

Why should you create objectives?

There are many good reasons to develop objectives for your initiative. They include:

• Having benchmarks to show progress. 
• Completed objectives can serve as a marker to show members of your organization, funders, and the greater community what your initiative has accomplished.
• Creating objectives helps your organization keep focused on initiatives most likely to have an impact.
• Keeping members of the organization working toward the same long-term goals.

When should you create objectives?

Your community organization should create objectives when:

• Your organization has developed (or revamped) its vision and mission statements, and is ready to take the next step in the planning process.
• Your organization's focus has changed or expanded. For example, perhaps your organization's mission relates to care and caring at the end of life. You have recently been made aware of new resources, however, to positively affect the lives of those deeply affected by the death of a loved one. If your organization were to apply for this new grant, it would clearly expand upon your current work, and would require objectives as you developed your action plan.
• The organization wants to address a community issue or problem, create a service, or make a community change that requires:
  • Several years to complete. For example, your child health organization might hope to increase the percentage of students who finish high school - a task that may take several years to complete.
  • A change in behavior of large numbers of people. For example, your organization may be trying to reduce risks for cardiovascular diseases, and one of your objectives may be to increase the number of adults who engage in physical activity in your community.
  • A multi-faceted approach. For example, with a problem as complex as substance use, your organization may have to worry about tackling related issues, such as access to drugs, available drug rehabilitation services, legal consequences for drug use, etc., as well as reducing the prevalence (how often or how much) of drug use.

How do you create objectives?

So once your organization has decided that it does wish to develop objectives, how do you go about doing so? Let's look at the process that will help you to define and refine objectives for your organization.

Define or reaffirm your vision and mission statements

The first thing you will need to do is review the vision and mission statements your organization has developed. Before you determine your objectives, you should have a "big picture" that they fit into.

Determine the changes to be made

The crux of writing realistic objectives is learning what changes need to happen in order to fulfill your mission.

There are many ways to do this, including:

• Research what experts in your field believe to be the best ways to solve the problem. For many community issues, researchers have developed useful ideas of what needs to occur to see real progress. This information may be available through local libraries, the Internet, state and national agencies, national nonprofit groups, and university research groups.
• Discuss with local experts what needs to occur. Some of the people with whom you may wish to talk include:
  • Other members of your organization
  • Local experts, such as members of other, similar organizations who have a great deal of experience with the issue you are trying to change
  • Agents of change, or the people in a position to contribute to the solution. Agents of change might include teachers, business leaders, church leaders, local politicians, community members, and members of the media.
  • Targets of change, the people who experience the problem or issue on a day-to-day basis and those people whose actions contribute to the problem. Changing their behavior will become the heart of your objectives.
• Discuss the logistical requirements of your own organization to successfully address community needs. At the same time your organization is looking at what needs to happen in the community to solve the issue important to you, you should also consider what your organization requires to get that done. Do you need an action plan? Additional funding? More staff, or more training for additional staff? This information is necessary to develop the process objectives we talked about earlier in this section.

At this point in the planning process, you don't need hard and fast answers to the above questions. What you should develop as part of this step is a general list of what needs to occur to make the changes you want to see.

For example, perhaps your group has decided upon the following mission: "To reduce risk for cardiovascular diseases through a community-wide initiative." At this point in your research (without getting into specifics), your organization might have decided that your objectives will be based on the following general goals:

• Begin smoking cessation programs
• Begin smoking prevention programs
• Bring about an increase in aerobic exercise
• Decrease the amount of obesity
• Encourage healthier diets
• Increase preventative medicine (for example, more checkups for earlier detection of disease; better understanding of warning signs and symptoms)
• Increase the scientific understanding of your own organization regarding the causes and pathophysiology of cardiovascular disease
• Strengthen your organization's ties with national organizations committed to the same goals as your organization

Collect baseline data on the issues to be addressed

As soon as your organization has a general idea of what it wants to accomplish, the next step is to develop baseline data on the issue to be addressed. Baseline data are the facts and figures that tell you how big the problem is; it gives specific figures about the extent to which it exists in your community.

Baseline data can indicate the incidence (new cases) of a problem in the community. For example, "Malott County has an adolescent pregnancy rate of 12.3 pregnancies for every thousand adolescent girls." Such data can also reveal the prevalence (existing cases) of the problem. For example, "In Jefferson County, 35% of adolescents reported that they did not use contraceptives during the last time they had sex."

Baseline data may also measure community attitudes towards a problem. For example, "65% of the residents of Malott County do not consider adolescent pregnancy to be an important problem for the community."

Why collect baseline data?

This information is important because baseline data provides your organization with the numbers; the starting points against which you can measure how much progress you have made. Not only is this information helpful when originally asking for financial (or other) assistance, it can help you show what your organization has done later in its lifetime.

So, early in your organization's life, you can prove to funders that there really is a very significant problem in your community that needs to be addressed ("Malott County's adolescent pregnancy rate is the highest in the state of Georgia.") Then, when asked later in the life of your community initiative, "What have you done?" you will be able to answer, "Since our coalition was formed, Malott County has seen pregnancy among adolescents drop by 35%." If you don't collect (or obtain) the baseline information, you can't prove how much you have done.

How do you collect this information?

There are two basic ways to collect baseline data:

• You can collect your own baseline data for the information related to your specific issues. Ways to gather this information include the use of surveys, questionnaires, and personal interviews.
• You can use information that has already been collected. Public libraries, city government, social service agencies, local schools, or city health departments may already have the statistics that you want, especially if another organization has already done work on a similar issue in your community.

Decide what is realistic for your organization to accomplish

Once you know what you want to do, as well as exactly how big the problem is, it's time to figure out how much you believe your organization can accomplish. Do you have the resources to affect all of the goals you looked at in Step Two? And to what extent will you be able to achieve them?

These questions are difficult ones to answer. It's hard for a new organization to know what it can reasonably expect to get done. For example, if you are trying to increase rates of childhood immunization, will your organization be able to increase it by 5% in three years, or by 20% in one year? How do you make these decisions?

Unfortunately, there are no easy answers. Your organization will need to take a good look at its resources, as well as talk to experts who have a sense of what is not only possible, but likely. For example, you might ask members of organizations who have done similar things, or researchers in your topic area what they believe makes sense.

Remember, you are attempting to set objectives that are both achievable and challenging. It's hard to hit just the right note of balance between these two qualities, and you may not always get it just right. Research and experience, however, should help you come closer and closer to this goal.

Set the objectives for your organization or initiative

With all of this information in mind, your organization is ready to set some short-term goals or objectives that are feasible but demanding. Remember, objectives refer to specific measurable results. These changes in behavior, outcome, and process must be able to be tracked and measured in such a way to show that a change has occurred.

A caution: Oftentimes, the objectives of a community initiative or organization are set or influenced by the primary funding agency. Regardless of outside influences, each community initiative must decide what problems it is going to take on and what objectives would define success for their organization.

Your organization's list of objectives should do all of the following:

• Include all three types of objectives: objectives that measure behavior change, community outcomes, and those that measure important parts of the planning process.
• Include specific objectives that tell how much of what will occur by when. For example, "By 2025, rates of adolescent pregnancy among 12-17 year old girls will decrease by 30%."
• They should include all of the "SMART + C Criteria." As we discussed earlier in this section, this means that they should be, Specific, Measurable, Achievable, Relevant, Timed, and Challenging.

Let's look at one more example of some objectives; these goals come from an organization focusing on preventing adolescent substance use.

Objectives developed by an adolescent substance use prevention initiative

By the year 2024, the use of tobacco among 12-17 year olds will be reduced by 40%.
By the year 2024, the use of alcohol among 12-17 year olds will be reduced by 50%.
By the year 2024, the use of marijuana among 12-17 year olds will be reduced by 70%.
By the year 2024, the use of cocaine among 12-17 year olds will be reduced by 80%.

Review the objectives your organization has created

Before you finalize your objectives, it makes sense for members of your organization to review them one more time, and possibly, ask people outside of your organization to review them as well. You might ask members of your organization who were not involved in the development process to review your work. You may also wish to get the thoughts of local experts, targets and agents of change, and/or of people doing similar work in other communities to review what you have developed. You can ask reviewers to comment on:

• Do your objectives each meet the criteria of "SMART+ C"?
• Is your list of objectives complete? That is, are there important objectives that are missing?
• Are your objectives appropriate? Are any of your objectives controversial? If so, your organization needs to decide if it is ready to handle the storm that may arise. For example, a program that is trying to reduce the spread of AIDS in its community may decide sterile syringes for people who use drugs is an objective they wish to strive for; but it may very well cause difficulties for that organization. That's not to say the organization shouldn't make that an objective, but they should do so with a clear understanding of the consequences.

Use your objectives to define your organization's strategies

Finally, once you have your objectives, you are ready for the next step: developing the strategies that will make them possible. Once your objectives are finished, and satisfactory to members of the organization and important people outside of your group, you are ready to move on to developing successful strategies.

In Summary

Developing objectives is a critical step in the planning process. The next section covers how to develop strategies to achieve the objectives you have set.

___Your organization understands what objectives are, and when you should develop them

___Your organization understands that objectives should be "SMART +C"

___You have defined and reaffirmed your vision and mission statements

___You have determined the changes to be made

___You have collected baseline data on the issues to be addressed

___You have decided what is realistic for your organization to accomplish

___You have set objectives for the organization or initiative

___You have reviewed the objectives your organization has created

Example: The Reducing the Risks (RTR) Coalition's development of objectives to reduce teen pregnancy

The RTR Coalition decided that its main targets of change would be young people (girls and boys), parents and guardians, and members of the community at large.

Some of the agents of change who could assist with the project included:

• Peers
• Teachers at the local junior high and high schools
• Church leaders and youth group directors
• The mayor
• The directors of local youth groups, such as the Boys and Girls Club and the city youth center

Members of the RTR Coalition reviewed their vision and mission statements, discussed changes they wanted to see made, baseline data, and what they felt was realistic for their group to achieve. After working through all of these steps, they sat down to write a list of objectives.

A partial listing of their ideas included:

• By the year 2010, 90% of our community will agree with the statement, "It is very important that our community effectively address the problem of teen pregnancy."
• By the year 2012, the reported level of sexual abstinence and postponement of initial sexual intercourse among 12-17 year olds will be increased by 20%.
• By the year 2012, the reported use of contraceptives among adolescents 12-17 years old who choose to be sexually active will increase by 33%.
• By the year 2014, the estimated rate of sexually transmitted diseases (STD's) among 12-17 year olds will be reduced by 40%.
• By the year 2015, the estimated pregnancy rate among 12-17 year olds will be reduced by 25%.

Things to note about the RTR objectives:

• They include what specific changes in whose behavior (and which community-level outcomes) should occur.
• They include by when the objective should be met.
• They include how much of the desired change should occur.
• They are relevant to the mission; that is, they refer to the issues that are directly related to teen pregnancy (contraceptive use, STD rate, etc.).
• They are challenging; they will stretch the community to go beyond what it is doing.

Tool: Developing Objectives and Strategies

Download a worksheet in MS Word here.

A PowerPoint presentation summarizing the major points in the section.

• What is a strategy?

• What are the criteria for developing a good strategy?

• Why develop strategies?

• When should you develop strategies for your initiative?

• How do you develop strategies?

What is a strategy?

A strategy is a way of describing how you are going to get things done. It is less specific than an action plan (which tells the who-what-when); instead, it tries to broadly answer the question, "How do we get there from here?" (Do we want to take the train? Fly? Walk?)

A good strategy will take into account existing barriers and resources (people, money, power, materials, etc.). It will also stay with the overall vision, mission, and objectives of the initiative. Often, an initiative will use many different strategies--providing information, enhancing support, removing barriers, providing resources, etc.--to achieve its goals.

Objectives outline the aims of an initiative--what success would look like in achieving the vision and mission. By contrast, strategies suggest paths to take (and how to move along) on the road to success. That is, strategies help you determine how you will realize your vision and objectives through the nitty-gritty world of action.

What are the criteria for developing a good strategy?

Strategies for your community initiative should meet several criteria.

Does the strategy:

• Give overall direction? A strategy, such as enhancing experience and skill or increasing resources and opportunities, should point out the overall path without dictating a particular narrow approach (e.g., using a specific skills training program).
• Fit resources and opportunities? A good strategy takes advantage of current resources and assets, such as people's willingness to act or a tradition of self-help and community pride. It also embraces new opportunities such as an emerging public concern for neighborhood safety or parallel economic development efforts in the business community.
• Minimize resistance and barriers? When initiatives set out to accomplish important things, resistance (even opposition) is inevitable. However, strategies need not provide a reason for people opposing the initiative to challenge it. Good strategies attract allies and deter people opposing the initiative.
• Reach those affected? To address the issue or problem, strategies must connect the intervention with those who it should benefit. For example, if the mission of the initiative is to get people into decent jobs, do the strategies (providing education and skills training, creating job opportunities, etc.) reach those currently unemployed?
• Advance the mission? Taken together, are strategies likely to make a difference on the mission and objectives? If the aim is to reduce a problem such as unemployment, are the strategies enough to make a difference on rates of employment? If the aim is to prevent a problem, such as substance use, have factors contributing to risk (and protection) been changed sufficiently to reduce use of alcohol, tobacco, and other drugs?

Why develop strategies?

Developing strategies is really a way to focus your efforts and figure out how you're going to get things done. By doing so, you can achieve the following advantages:

• Taking advantage of resources and emerging opportunities
• Responding effectively to resistance and barriers
• A more efficient use of time, energy, and resources

When should you develop strategies for your initiative?

Developing strategies is the fourth step in the VMOSA (Vision, Mission, Objectives, Strategies, and Action Plans) process outlined at the beginning of this chapter. Developing strategies is the essential step between figuring out your objectives and making the changes to reach them. Strategies should always be formed in advance of taking action, not deciding how to do something after you have done it. Without a clear idea of the how, your group's actions may waste time and effort and fail to take advantage of emerging opportunities. Strategies should also be updated periodically to meet the needs of a changing environment, including new opportunities and emerging opposition to the group's efforts.

How do you develop strategies?

Once again, let's refer back to our friends at the fictional Reducing the Risk (RTR) Coalition that hopes to reduce the risk of adolescent pregnancy in its community. We'll walk through the process of developing strategies with this group so as to better explain the who, what, and why of strategies.

As with the process you went through to write your vision and mission statements and to set your objectives, developing strategies involves brainstorming and talking to community members.

Organize a brainstorming meeting with members of your organization and members of the community

Remember, people will work best in a relaxed and welcoming environment. You can help achieve this by:

• Making meetings a place where all members feel that their ideas are listened to and valued, and where constructive criticism may be openly voiced. To help meet these goals, you might post some "ground rules" so people feel free to express themselves. Ground rules might include:
  • One person speaks at a time
  • No interrupting each other
  • Everyone's ideas are respected
• Bringing fans or heaters (if needed) so people will be comfortable.
• Asking members to escort each other home or to their cars, the subway, or the bus stop if the meeting runs late.
• Providing refreshments. Never underestimate the power of homemade food, drinks, and other treats.

The RTR Coalition held brainstorming sessions among organization members. They invited local adolescents, parents, teachers, counselors, church members, and other community leaders to participate in listening sessions. These were used to help develop strategies to reduce the risk of adolescent pregnancy. Homemade cookies, fruit, and coffee helped make participants feel welcome.

Review (identify) the targets and agents of change for your initiative

• Your targets of change include all of the people who experience (or are experiencing increased risk for) this issue or problem addressed by your initiative. Remember to be inclusive; that is, include everyone who is affected by the problem or issue or whose action or inaction contributes to it. For example, a coalition such the RTR Coalition would want to include all adolescents as potential targets of change, not just adolescents who appear to experience increased risk, and parents, peers, and teachers whose actions or inactions might make a difference.
• Your agents of change include everyone who is in a position to help contribute to the solution. With the RTR Coalition, examples of agents of change might include adolescent, teachers, guidance counselors, parents of adolescent, lawmakers, and others.

Review your vision, mission, and objectives to keep you on the right track

It is helpful to review your mission, vision, and objectives to ensure that your strategies are all aligned with the goals expressed in your previous work.

Work together to brainstorm the best strategies for your initiative

The following list of questions can be a guide for deciding on the most beneficial strategies for your group:

• What resources and assets exist that can be used to help achieve the vision and mission? How can they be used best?
• What obstacles or resistance exist that could make it difficult to achieve your vision and mission? How can you minimize or get around them?
• What are potential agents of change willing to do to serve the mission?
• Do you want to reduce the existing problem, or does it make more sense to try to prevent (or reduce risk for) problems before they start? For example, if you are trying to reduce adolescent sexual activity, you might consider gearing some of your strategies to younger children, for whom sex is not yet a personal issue; or, to promote academic success, to work with younger children who still have full potential for learning and school success.
• How will your potential strategies decrease the risk for experiencing the problem (e.g., adolescent girls experiencing pressure for sex from older men)? How will the strategies increase protective factors (e.g., support from peers; access to contraceptives)?
• What potential strategies will affect the whole population and problem? For example, connecting youth with caring adults might be good for virtually all youth, regardless of income or past experience with the problem. Also, just one strategy, affecting just one part of the community such as schools or youth organizations, often isn't enough to improve the situation. Make sure that your strategies affect the problem or issue as a whole.
• What potential strategies reach those experiencing increased risk for the problem? For example, early screenings might help focus on those experiencing higher risk for heart disease or cancer; past academic failure or history of drug use, for identifying with whom support and other intervention efforts might be focused.

Let's look at the strategies proposed by the members of the RTR Coalition to prevent adolescent pregnancy.

Example: The strategies of the RTR Coalition

We will pursue the following strategies to reach each of our objectives:

• Assist local churches in implementing parent-child awareness sessions (for example, a series of talks might be given discussing how to talk to your preteen about sex);
• Include comprehensive sex education in the curriculum of students from kindergarten through grade twelve, including information on abstinence, sexual decision-making skills, and family planning / contraception at age-appropriate times;
• Incorporate options for teacher-led and peer support programs in the schools;
• Survey and report on student knowledge, attitudes, and behavior related to sexual issues;
• Increase access to contraception;
• Organize a school/community action group to create supervised after-school activities, mentor programs, etc.

Things to note about the RTR strategies:

• They give overall direction (without dictating specifics, such as the particular sexuality education curricula to be used).
• They fit local resources, including a variety of the available agents of change (in this case, peers, parents and guardians, clergy, and teachers).
• Some of the strategies try to change existing situations (such as increased access to contraception); others are geared to stop the problem of adolescent pregnancy before it starts (for example, assisting local churches to improve early parent-child communication).
• The strategies involve many different parts of the community, including churches and other groups from whom opposition to some strategies (such as access to contraceptives) might be expected.
• The strategies try to decrease some of the probable risk factors for adolescent pregnancy (lack of information, lack of access to contraceptives, peer pressure), and at the same time, they try to increase some of the possible protective factors (increased parent-child communication, church involvement, education, opportunities for a better future).

Check your proposed strategies for completeness, accuracy, and whether they contribute to the vision, mission, and objectives

Develop successful strategies:

___You can form a planning group to develop strategies

Find potential members:

___Community leaders

___Members of other local organizations

___Those affected by the issue or problem

___Representatives of local ethnic and cultural groups

Create a supportive environment:

___A safe and comfortable building, neighborhood site

___Create an open forum for all to participate

Determine/review targets and agents of change:

___Be inclusive of those experiences, at risk for, and contributing to the issue

___Determine risk and protective factors affecting the issue

___Review vision, mission, and objectives

Brainstorm the best strategies:

___Determine potential obstacles

___Strategize to get around obstacles

___Identify how agents of change will help

___Decide when strategies will affect targets of change

___Determine if you will work on repairing or preventing problems

___Ensure strategies decrease risk factors, and increase protective factors

___Make sure strategies will address entire problem or issue

Do the strategies meet the criteria?

___Give overall direction

___Fit resources and opportunities

___Minimize resistance and barriers

___Reach those affected

___Advance the mission

Example 1: Promoting healthy diets and physical activity among children and youth

Here are selected strategies for changes in elementary, middle, and high schools to reduce dietary risk for chronic disease (from the Center for Community Health and Development's Reducing Risk for Chronic Disease: An Action Planning Guide):

• Integrate health and nutrition activities into existing student organizations
• Enact and enforce state nutritional guidelines for school lunch programs and daycare services
• Monitor and provide feedback on nutritional quality of foods available in cafeterias, concession stands, and vending machines
• Place point-of-purchase information about healthy choices in cafeterias and vending machines
• Make available healthy snacks in vending machines, concession stands, and cafeterias
• Implement age-appropriate health and nutrition curricula

Example 2: Preventing youth violence

Here are selected strategies for changes in the criminal justice system to reduce youth violence (from the Center for Community Health and Development's Preventing Youth Violence: An Action Planning Guide):

• Communicate information about levels of violence and gang-related activity through the media
• Establish reward programs for tips leading to arrests for illegal weapons sales
• Establish a "silent witness hotline" for reporting incidents of violence
• Establish neighborhood watch programs
• Provide awards to police and citizens who contribute to the prevention of youth violence
• Establish crisis intervention teams to deal with domestic disputes
• Community education in monitoring violence and gang-related activity
• Remove "crack" houses in affected neighborhoods

Example 3: Promoting highway safety

Selected strategies for encouraging states and communities to promote adherence to traffic laws follow (from the National Highway Traffic Safety Administration's Strategic Execution Plan):

• Award demonstration grants to states and communities for traffic safety initiatives, particularly involving alcohol, speed and safety belts.
• Promote and distribute Campaign Safe and Sober materials. Collaborate with national organizations to implement traffic safety and enforcement programs.
• Provide technical assistance, training and educational materials to law enforcement, prosecutors, judges and community activities.

Example 4: Equity and Social Justice Strategic Plan

The six-year Equity and Social Justice Strategic Plan represents a critical opportunity for King County to do ground-breaking work:

• Applying a theory of change that fundamentally shifts the county away from policies and practices that react to problems and crises toward investments that address the root causes of inequities, ultimately leading to better quality of life and greater prosperity in all of their communities.
• Balancing a bold vision with actionable and measurable objectives.
• Allowing for innovation and adaptability across King County government to help them be dynamic and culturally responsive, moving towards the goal of being racially justice internally and in the community.

Their Equity and Social Justice strategies as One King County are to invest upstream and where needs are greatest, in employees and in community partnerships. And they will do this with accountable and transparent leadership.

Read more about the plan here.

Download a full copy of the plan here.

Tool 1: Developing Objectives and Strategies

Download a worksheet in MS Word here.

 

Tool 2: Co-Impact's Worksheet: Crafting Your Strategy for Change

The Co-Impact's Worksheet: Crafting Your Strategy for Change is a practical toolkit that helps organizations and initiatives build a clear, actionable plan for systems change. It walks users through a step-by-step process that covers:

• Defining the problem
• Identifying people-level outcomes
• Mapping system components
• Conducting a political economy analysis
• Setting system-level outcomes
• Developing a strategy for change
• Testing critical assumptions
• Aligning organizational practices
• Creating a dashboard

The PDF version of this worksheet

A PowerPoint presentation summarizing the major points in the section.

 

Developing an action plan can help changemakers turn their visions into reality, and increase efficiency and accountability within an organization. An action plan describes the way your organization will meet its objectives through detailed action steps that describe how and when these steps will be taken. This section provides a guide for developing and utilizing your group's action plan.

What is an action plan?

In some ways, an action plan is a "heroic" act: it helps us turn our dreams into a reality. An action plan is a way to make sure your organization's vision is made concrete. It describes the way your group will use its strategies to meet its objectives. An action plan consists of a number of action steps or changes to be brought about in your community.

Each action step or change to be sought should include the following information:

• What actions or changes will occur
• Who will carry out these changes
• By when they will take place, and for how long
• What resources (i.e., money, staff) are needed to carry out these changes
• Communication (who should know what?)

What are the criteria for a good action plan?

The action plan for your initiative should meet several criteria.

Is the action plan:

• Complete? Does it list all the action steps or changes to be sought in all relevant parts of the community (e.g., schools, business, government, faith community)?
• Clear? Is it apparent who will do what by when?
• Current? Does the action plan reflect the current work? Does it anticipate newly emerging opportunities and barriers?

Why should you develop an action plan?

There is an inspirational adage that says, "People don't plan to fail. Instead they fail to plan." Because you certainly don't want to fail, it makes sense to take all of the steps necessary to ensure success, including developing an action plan.

There are lots of good reasons to work out the details of your organization's work in an action plan, including:

• To lend credibility to your organization. An action plan shows members of the community (including grantmakers) that your organization is well ordered and dedicated to getting things done.
• To be sure you don't overlook any of the details
• To understand what is and isn't possible for your organization to do
• For efficiency: to save time, energy, and resources in the long run
• For accountability: To increase the chances that people will do what needs to be done

When should you create an action plan?

Ideally, an action plan should be developed within the first six months to one year of the start of an organization. It is developed after you have determined the vision, mission, objectives, and strategies of your group. If you develop an action plan when you are ready to start getting things done, it will give you a blueprint for running your organization or initiative.

Remember, though, that an action plan is always a work in progress. It is not something you can write, lock in your file drawers, and forget about. Keep it visible. Display it prominently. As your organization changes and grows, you will want to continually (usually monthly) revise your action plan to fit the changing needs of your group and community.

How to write an action plan

Determine what people and sectors of the community should be changed and involved in finding solutions

If you have been using the VMOSA (Vision, Mission, Objectives, Strategies, Action Plans) model, you might have already done this, when you were deciding upon your group's objectives. Again, try to be inclusive. Most of the health and development issues that community partnerships deal with are community-wide, and thus need a community-wide solution. Possible sectors include the media, the business community, religious organizations, schools, youth organizations, social service organizations, health organizations, and others.

Some members of the community you might consider asking to join the action planning group include:

• Influential people from all the parts of the community affected by your initiative (e.g., from churches and synagogues, the school system, law enforcement, etc.)
• People who are directly involved in the problem (e.g., local high school students and their parents might be involved in planning a coalition trying to reduce adolescent substance use)
• Members of grassroots organizations
• Members of the various ethnic and cultural groups in your community
• People you know who are interested in the problem or issue
• Newcomers or young people in the community who are not yet involved

Let's consider some of the people who were involved with the planning group for the fictional Reducing the Risks (RTR) Coalition that hopes to reduce the rate of adolescent pregnancy. Some of the members of this planning group included teachers at the local high school, local adolescents and their parents, members of the clergy, counselors and school nurses, staff of the county health department, and members of youth organizations, service agencies, and other organizations that focus on youth issues.

Convene a planning group in your community to design your action plan. This might be the same group of people who worked with you to decide your group's strategies and objectives. If you are organizing a new group of people, try to make your planning committee as diverse and inclusive as possible. Your group should look like the people most affected by the problem or issue.

Once everyone is present, go over your organization's:

• Vision
• Mission
• Objectives
• Strategies
• Targets and agents of change (e.g., youth, parents and guardians, clergy)
• Proposed changes for each sector of the community (e.g., schools, faith community, service organizations, health organizations, government)

Develop an action plan composed of action steps that address all proposed changes. The plan should be complete, clear, and current. Additionally, the action plan should include information and ideas you have already gathered while brainstorming about your objectives and your strategies. What are the steps you must take to carry out your objectives while still fulfilling your vision and mission? Now it's time for all of the VMOSA components to come together. While the plan might address general goals you want to see accomplished, the action steps will help you determine the specific actions you will take to help make your vision a reality. Here are some guidelines to follow to write action steps.

Members of the community initiative will want to determine:

• What action or change will occur
• Who will carry it out
• When it will take place, and for how long
• What resources (i.e., money, staff) are needed to carry out the change
• Communication (who should know what)

Example: RTR Coalition's Action Step (a sample)

One community change sought by this coalition to prevent adolescent pregnancy was to increase publicity about contraception and unwanted pregnancy at the local high school.

• What action or change will occur: Hanging posters, displays, and other information about contraception and the facts about unwanted pregnancy in the hallways of the local high school. The posters and other information will become a permanent part of the high school. Posters and information will be regularly changed as new materials become available.
• Who will carry it out: A sub-committee comprised of parents and guardians, teachers, students, and coalition members will be responsible for maintaining the displays. The coalition as a whole will work towards finding funding to purchase the materials. Maria and Alex of the schools action group will be responsible for researching and ordering the materials.
• By when will it take place, and for how long: The coalition will try to have posters hanging and displays visible within six weeks of deciding on the action step (2/19/2013).
• What resources are needed to carry out the step: The coalition will approach the school district to request funding for the project. Otherwise, the group will seek funding from other sources such as foundations and local businesses to finance the program.
• Communication about the action step. The school principal and leadership of the Parent-Teacher Organization (PTO) should be given information about this planned change.

Things to note about this portion of the RTR action plan:

• It appears complete. Although this step seems fully developed, we would need to review the entire action plan to see whether all community and system changes that should be sought are included.
• It is clear. We know who will do what by when.
• It seems current. We would need to know more about other current work (and new opportunities and barriers) to judge whether this portion of the action plan is up-to-date.

Review your completed action plan carefully to check for completeness. Make sure that each proposed change will help accomplish your group's mission. Also, be sure that the action plan taken as a whole will help you complete your mission; that is, make sure you aren't leaving anything out.

Follow through. One hard part (figuring out what to do) is finished. Now take your plan and run with it! Remember the 80-20 rule: successful efforts are 80% follow through on planned actions and 20% planning for success.

Keep everyone informed about what's going on. Communicate to everyone involved how their input was incorporated. No one likes to feel like their wit and wisdom has been ignored.

Keep track of what (and how well) you've done. Always keep track of what the group has actually done. If the community change (a new program or policy) took significant time or resources, it's also a good idea to evaluate what you have done, either formally or informally.

Keep several questions in mind for both yourself and others:

• Are we doing what we said we'd do?
• Are we doing it well?
• Is what we are doing advancing the mission?

You can address these questions informally (ask yourself, chat with friends and other people), as well as formally, through surveys and other evaluation methods.

Celebrate a job well done! Celebrate your accomplishments; you and those you work with deserve it. Celebration helps keep everyone excited and interested in the work they are doing.

After you've written your action plan: Getting members to do what they said they would

Every community organization has undoubtedly had this happen: you plan and you assign tasks to get everything you've planned to do accomplished. Everyone agrees (maybe they even offer) to do certain tasks, and you all leave with a great feeling of accomplishment. The problem? At the next meeting, nothing has been done. Besides tearing out your hair, what can you do?

Fortunately, there are several things you can try. It's particularly tricky in the case of volunteers, because you don't want to lean too hard on someone who is donating their time and energy to begin with. Still, you can make it easier for members to get things done (and harder to avoid work) without acting like the mean neighbor down the street. Some of these gentle reminders include:

• Regular phone calls from staff members or dedicated volunteers asking others how they are doing with their tasks. This should be a supportive call, not a "are you doing what you're supposed to" call. The person calling can offer emotional support "how are you doing?" as well as see if the group member needs any other assistance. A friendly call such as this can be seen as helpful, give the member the sense that they are a very important part of the group, and serve as a great reminder to do what they said they would do.
• Distributing the action plan in writing to all members, with names attached to specific tasks. (Additionally, this can be a great time to ask for feedback before the plan becomes "official.")
• Making sure timelines (with due dates) are complete, clear and current.
• At regular group meetings, such as committee meetings or board meetings, ask members to report on accomplishing the tasks they have set out to do. Consider making this a regular part of the meeting.
• Celebrate the accomplishment of tasks. It's important that getting something done actually means something, and is recognized by the group as a whole.

Follow up on the action plan regularly. You are asking members to be accountable, and to get things done on a regular basis. If they have agreed, you should help them fulfill their commitment as best you can.

Getting started:

___You can determine what people and sectors of the community should be involved in finding solutions

___You have convened a planning group in your community to design the action plan

Invite these people to help prepare an action plan:

___Influential people from all groups affected

___People directly involved in the problem or issue

___Members of grassroots organizations

___Members of ethnic and cultural groups of the community

___Different sectors of the community: media/business community/religious groups/schools/youth organizations/social service organizations/health organizations

Be sure you are able to:

___Review vision, mission, objectives, strategies, targets and agents of change, community sectors to be involved

___Develop action plan with steps for all changes to be sought

___Review action plan: Is it complete, clear, current?

___Follow through

___Keep members informed about progress

___Keep track of what (and how well) you've done

___Celebrate accomplishments

Tips for successful planning meetings:

___Be inclusive

___Create a safe, comfortable environment

___Prepare for possible conflict

___Be efficient

___Record what happens

___Communicate the products of planning (distribute the plan after review by the group)

___Support and encourage group members

For each action or change to be accomplished, list:

___What action or change will occur?

___Who will carry it out?

___By when (for how long)?

___What resources are needed?

___Communication: who should know what?

Does the action plan meet the criteria?

___Complete

___Clear

___Current

To finish up:

___Review your completed action plan carefully

___Follow through!

___Keep everyone informed about what's going on

___Keep track of what (and how well) we've done

Keep members accountable:

___Regular phone call check-ins

___Reports on progress at meetings

___Celebrate accomplishments

Example: Forward through Ferguson Action Plan

Forward through Ferguson's Action Plan lays out the three Action Strategies that guide the organization’s work for the next three years as it works to achieve a racially equitable St. Louis by the year 2039, which will mark the 25th anniversary of the death of Michael Brown.

When the Ferguson Commission delivered their report to the region they named it “Forward Through Ferguson: A Path to Racial Equity.” The Commission wove together data and resident experiences into a sweeping community policy document that linked a specific traumatic event to regional racial inequity. They urged them to face inequitable reality. Only through confronting their trauma would they have the opportunity to move forward.

The Commission also endowed them with a compass aligned to their true north: Racial Equity—a future St. Louis where race no longer predicts life outcomes.

Read more about the action plan.

Download the action plan.

Tool 1: Action Planning Template

This is a downloadable, editable template you are welcome to adapt and use for your group’s purposes. There is a space for noting the overall goal area, SMART+C objectives, strategies, and related action steps for implementation. 

Keep the updated action plan accessible to the group, with regular reviews during coalition meetings to keep action items moving forward. 

 

Action Planning Template

Download the Action Planning Template (docx)

Goal:
Overall goal statement:
Overall objective(s):  Note: Use SMART+C formatting
Priority focus areas:

 

Focus Area 1:
Objective(s):
Strategy 1:
Action to be taken:	Person(s) responsible:	By when:	Resources needed:
Strategy 2:
Action to be taken:	Person(s) responsible:	By when:	Resources needed:
Strategy 3:
Action to be taken:	Person(s) responsible:	By when:	Resources needed:

 

Focus Area 2:
Objective(s):
Strategy 1:
Action to be taken:	Person(s) responsible:	By when:	Resources needed:
Strategy 2:
Action to be taken:	Person(s) responsible:	By when:	Resources needed:
Strategy 3:
Action to be taken:	Person(s) responsible:	By when:	Resources needed:

 

Focus Area 3:
Objective(s):
Strategy 1:
Action to be taken:	Person(s) responsible:	By when:	Resources needed:
Strategy 2:
Action to be taken:	Person(s) responsible:	By when:	Resources needed:
Strategy 3:
Action to be taken:	Person(s) responsible:	By when:	Resources needed:

 

Tool 2: Tips for Action Planning

What is an action plan?

An action plan is an opportunity to turn your dreams for your community or initiative into a reality. It is also an opportunity to make your organization's vision concrete. An action plan outlines the strategies and action steps your organization will use to meet its goals and objectives.

Why develop an action plan?

Developing an action plan is a critical first step toward ensuring project success. An action plan may lend credibility to your organization and its initiative, increase efficiency, and provide accountability. In addition, the action plan provides a tool for mobilizing the community or group and encouraging members to share responsibility for solving the problems and improving the situation you have decided to change.

Who develops the action plan?

You can invite these people to help prepare an action plan:

• Influential people from all groups affected
• People directly involved in the problem or issue
• Members of grassroots organizations
• Members of ethnic and cultural groups of the community
• Different sectors of the community: media/business community/religious groups/schools/youth organizations/social service organizations/health organizations

How do I develop an action plan?

First, clarify your charge. Is it to work to reduce adolescent pregnancy in your community? Or are you working to increase the rate of home ownership? Your goal will provide the backbone of your action plan.

Your action plan should include the strategies you plan to use and the action steps you will take to achieve your goals and objectives. It should also identify a role for each sector of the community or group involved in your effort.

For each action step or change to be accomplished, list the following, with a due date for each:

• What actions or changes will occur-by when?
• Who will carry it out-by when (or for how long)?
• What resources are needed-by when?
• Communication (who should know what)-and when?

Tool 3: A Successful Planning Process

Adapted from an Action Planning Guide for Community-Based Initiatives, the University of Kansas Center for Community Health and Development

Be inclusive

Good planning is active and inclusive. Seek out key players with diverse viewpoints on the problem or issue. Once a diverse group of important players is at the table, it is important to get them to communicate with each other. Effective leaders often call on silent members during pauses in the discussion. They convey the value of each person's voice on the issues. Occasionally, it may be necessary to discourage an overly enthusiastic member from talking too much or dominating meetings. Leaders may do so by thanking them for their comments and indicating the importance of hearing from other members of the group.

Manage conflict

If the group is effective in attracting diverse views, conflict among members may result. Group facilitators can recognize differences, perhaps noting the diverse experiences that give rise to divergent views. To resolve conflicts, leaders may attempt to elevate the discussion to a higher level on which there may be a basis for agreement. By reminding the group that we all share the vision of a healthy community, leaders can help members find common ground.

Use brainstorming rules

Group facilitators must avoid making judgments about ideas and suggestions. Brainstorming rules apply. All ideas must be heard and noted without criticism.

Be efficient

Planning meetings must be efficient, starting and ending on time. It is helpful to have an agenda or to build a consensus at the beginning of the meeting about what will be accomplished and in what time frame.

Communicate products of planning

Planning will result in a useful product. Try to structure every planning session so that it results in a product, such as a list of issues or ideas. Show off the product at the end of planning meetings, distributing copies of the products of planning to all members.

Provide support and encouragement

Finally, it is important to provide support and encouragement throughout the process of planning. Good planning takes time; it usually requires months to produce a detailed plan of action. Acknowledge the contributions of all participants, especially key leaders. Let the group know when it is doing a good job. Positive feedback feels good, particularly to those who are used to being criticized for their work.

 

Tool 4: Action Planning Guides from the KU Center for Community Health and Development

Community and Public Health Action Planning Guides

• Reducing Risk for Chronic Disease
• Promoting Health for All: Improving Access and Eliminating Disparities in Community Health
• Promoting Healthy Living and Preventing Chronic Disease

Child and Youth Health and Development Action Planning Guides

• Preventing Adolescent Substance Abuse
• Preventing Adolescent Pregnancy
• Preventing Youth Violence
• Preventing Child Abuse and Neglect
• Youth Development
• Promoting Child Well-Being

Community Development and Capacity Building Action Planning Guides

• Promoting Urban Neighborhood Development: Improving Housing, Jobs, Education, Safety and Health, and Human Development
• Work Group Evaluation Handbook
• Concerns Report Handbook: Planning for Community Health

 

Tool 5: Action Planning Guide

Download Your Action Planning Guide for Promoting Full Community Participation Among People with Disabilities (pdf), a resource for independent living centers and other community-based initiatives, developed by the Research and Training Center for Indiependent Living and the Center for Community Health and Development at the University of Kansas.

A PowerPoint presentation summarizing the major points in the section.

• What does it mean to obtain feedback from your constituents?

• Why should you obtain feedback from constituents?

• When should you obtain feedback from constituents?

• How to ask yourself the right questions

• Obtaining formal feedback: conducting a survey

 

 

Obtaining feedback from your community is vital to understand what the community truly needs and how it perceives your organization. This section explores how to obtain formal and informal feedback from members within your community so that your group may improve its program.

What does it mean to obtain feedback from constituents?

By obtaining feedback, we simply mean asking questions to determine something you want to know. Most often, feedback is sought to determine how well people feel your organization is doing, and also how important they believe the goals of your agency are. Feedback may be obtained in a number of ways, some as simple as having a casual conversation or reading articles and editorials in the paper. Formal feedback--data that you can measure--is usually obtained through one of the following methods:

• Personal interviews
• Phone surveys
• Written surveys or questionnaires

The term constituents, as we use it here, may refer to a variety of people, including those who are affected (directly or indirectly) by your agency's work, elected officials, members of your coalition, journalists, community leaders, and others.

Why should you obtain feedback from constituents?

• To understand how your organization is perceived
• To get a better understanding of what the community really needs
• To help prioritize tasks
• To generate renewed excitement and interest in your program
• To have the information ready for future use (such as grant proposals and questions from the press)
• To increase community awareness of who you are and what you do
• And overall, to improve your program

When should you obtain feedback from constituents?

You should try to obtain informal feedback as an ongoing, continuous process. Formal feedback may be done at differing times, including:

• As part of the planning process when you start your initiative
• Any time you start (or are considering starting) a new program
• At the end of a certain program sponsored by your group, such as a two-day workshop discussing the risk factors for alcohol use disorder, or a summer bicycle helmet for young people program
• Periodically throughout the life of your initiative (perhaps once a year or every two years)

However, you should always be sure you know how you will actually use the information you obtain. Nothing is more frustrating to your participants than to give feedback that is not used.

How to obtain feedback from constituents

Ask yourself the right questions

What do you want to know?

Some information that you could gather just won't  be used, and so it's simply not worth the staff time to gather it. For example, perhaps you have received a grant to reduce adolescent pregnancy in your community. Whether or not the community perceives adolescent pregnancy as a problem may be less important to you than other issues, because the program is going to be implemented either way. In such a case, it might make sense for your group to use your resources in a different way, such as to determine what specific needs regarding adolescent pregnancy need to be addressed.

Who has already done this?

Check to see if someone, such as researchers or another agency, has already done a survey in your community asking the same questions that you would like answered. Your coalition is undoubtedly busy enough; don't try to reinvent the wheel.

Who do you want to ask?

Decide whom you would like to survey. There are a variety of people you might decide to question, depending on what you would like to find out.

Possible respondents might include:

• The targets of change, or those whose actions you would like to change
• The people most affected by the problem you are addressing
• Professionals in your area
• Local administrators (directors, coordinators, principals, etc.)
• Possible or current funders for your program
• Elected officials
• Journalists
• Researchers and field experts
• Members of your coalition

Further, decide if you want to obtain your information in a closed manner (surveying a select group of people) or in an open manner (anyone who is willing to pick up a pencil or open their mouths for a few minutes). Be careful not to ask administrators to tell you the needs of those most affected; rather, ask those who are most affected themselves.

How many people would you like to ask?

If you are only surveying the active members of a small coalition (say, less than 50 members), you might try to survey everyone. If you would like to learn about the feelings of the adolescents in your coalition with regards to substance use disorder, however, you might find it unfeasible to survey every adolescent, and instead randomly choose a smaller, more workable group to question.

How do you want to ask people?

This may be done in a variety of ways, including:

• Listen to the opinions of people you know, researchers at planning agencies, people who work in the same or a similar field, and anyone else you can think of
• Suggestion boxes
• Noting chance meetings or comments in a log
• Feedback forms on publications such as brochures or on an agency newsletter
• Comment logs by the phone
• Designated "critique times at meetings"
• A formal survey: either by personal interviews, a phone survey, or a written survey

Good tips:

• Keep it secret. Always try to provide instructions that minimize any possibility of bias. For example, don't discuss what you hope to learn, what you believe to be true, or what earlier surveys have told you when you are writing the instructions. When possible, allow surveys to be anonymous.
• Keep your eyes and ears open. Be responsive to all possible means of obtaining data, such as learning what has been said at public protests, what complaints have been lodged or actions taken, etc.
• Make the best of it. If the response you get from constituents isn't what you hoped for--for example, if they respond that what your coalition is doing isn't really important--reassess what you are doing, and brainstorm ideas of what else you might do to sway public opinion.

Obtaining formal feedback: Conducting a survey

You've decided to take the plunge and go all out with a formal survey. But where do you start? How do you format your work and frame your questions? There are volumes upon volumes of information suggesting how you might do this, but please consider the following information as a starting point when putting together your survey.

Decide how you would like to conduct your survey

First, should it be written or oral?

There are several advantages and disadvantages of each that you should take into account:

• An oral survey (in person, on the phone) is often less formal, and may be easier to initiate and conduct. However, the body language or tone of the interviewer may affect the respondent's answers, and of course, anonymity is not an option for spoken interviews. Further, responses from an oral interview are more likely to be vague and rambling, taking up valuable time as well as being difficult to chart.
• A written survey may be formal and exact, and thus in the long run more efficient. However, it may be more difficult to convince people to respond to a mailed written survey than to respond orally, despite the real amount of time involved. Just think: if someone called and asked you to answer a few questions, you'd probably say yes, unless you were really pressed for time. However, if you got the same list of questions in the mail, you might think about answering them, and then forget, or misplace the letter, or just throw it away.) To get around this barrier, consider giving a survey to a "captive audience," such as a group at a meeting or in a class.

Decide how to format your questions

They may be written using open or closed questions:

• Closed questions allow the respondent to answer from a menu of different choices. This menu might be as simple as responding to a yes/no question. It also might take the form of several words (for example, "Which of the following seems to be the biggest health concern in our community?"), or a rating scale ("On a scale of one to five, with five being most important, how would you rate the importance of stopping merchants from selling alcohol to minors?"). A rating scale is often a simple yet very effective way to learn the feelings of the people taking the survey. Five point scales (between one and five) and seven point scales are often the norm when doing a survey in this manner.
• Open questions allow the respondent to answer questions in their own words, without prompts from the survey. An example of an open question would be, "What do you think is the most important health concern facing our community, and why do you think so?" The advantage of using open questions is that you are able to get deeper, more thoughtful answers than from closed questions. However, open questions may also lead to vague answers that are hard to interpret and use.
• To get the best of both worlds, you might consider using a survey with closed questions that leaves room for additional comments.

To the extent that it is possible, remove all possibility of bias from your survey

This includes:

• When possible, don't require (or even ask for) the names of the respondents
• Avoid discussing any expectations you might have for this survey
• Don't discuss previous survey results

Don't forget your manners

If your mother was going to respond to this survey, what would she want to see? Be sure to thank respondents ahead of time, let them know how you will use any information that you gather, and thank them again afterwards.

Make it easy

The less respondents are directly involved in your project, the less likely they are to be willing to take a lot of time filling out a survey or discussing an issue. Keep your survey as short as possible while still getting the information that you want to know. A good rule of thumb is simply, don't ask questions you're not going to use.

Make it easier

If you are mailing your survey, make it easy to return. Always include a self-addressed stamped envelope.

Keep your cool

Don't be frustrated if only a small number of mailed surveys are returned to you; in fact, you should probably expect this. A "normal" return rate might only be about half of the surveys that you send out are actually completed.

___You know what it means to obtain feedback from constituents

___You decided whether to use formal or informal feedback

If using formal feedback:

___You have decided whether to use personal interviews, phone surveys, written surveys and questionnaires

___You have determined how to obtain feedback from constituents

___You know what I want to know

___You know who has already done this

___You know who I want to ask

___You decided if you want to obtain information in an open or closed manner

___You know how many people you would like to ask

___You know how you want to ask people

___You have decided how you'd like to conduct your survey: written or oral

___You have decided on the format of your questions: open or closed

___You have removed all possibility of bias from your survey

___You know you should thank respondents ahead of time, let them know how you'll use any information that you gather, and thank them again afterwards

___You understand you shouldn't ask questions you're not going to use

___Remember to enclose a self-addressed stamped envelope

___Don't be frustrated if only a small number of mailed surveys are returned

A PowerPoint presentation summarizing the major points in the section.

• What is an action step?

• Why should you identify action steps?

• When should you determine action steps?

• How do you identify action steps?

Identifying action steps from your action plan is essential for acheiving your organization's goals. Determining action steps helps your group members find practical ways to reach your group's objectives and focus on the details necessary to succeed. This section provides a guide for developing action steps in order to increase the efficiency of your organization.

What is an action step?

An action step refers to the specific efforts that are made to reach the goals your agency has set. Action steps are the exact details of your action plan. They should be concrete and comprehensive, and each action step should explain:

• What will occur
• How much, or to what extent, these actions will occur
• Who will carry out these actions
• When these actions will take place, and for how long
• What resources (such as money and staff) are needed to carry out the proposed actions

Taken together, your defined action steps comprise your group's action plan.

Why should you identify action steps?

Anticipating the future makes us feel in control, right? That's the major reason why identifying action steps is important. You can get prepared for what your next step should be. Other reasons are:

• To concentrate on the details that must occur to succeed in your mission
• To decide on workable ways to reach your goals
• To allow a large number of people to think in a structured way about the future of your coalition
• To save time, energy, and resources in the long run: a well structured, thought -out action plan will make things much easier for you

When should you determine action steps?

You should determine your action steps after you have decided what changes you want to occur. You probably do this anyway, at least on a casual level; you decide what changes you want to see occur, and then you decide how to go about making them. These "hows" are your action steps.

Ideally, they will be thoughtfully, officially decided upon early in the life of your organization, and then updated every year or two as your group grows and changes. Even if your organization has been around for a while, though, and doesn't have defined action steps yet, it's never too late to decide on them, since we hope you're going to be around for a long time!

How do you identify action steps?

Determine what your group, as a whole and individually, is really good at. Are you great at fund raising? Do you have a member who happens to write for the local paper? Brainstorm all the possible strengths of your group, no matter how off the wall they might seem. (You never know when an award-winning tuba player will be just what you need!)

Brainstorm different, specific ways that these strengths can be used to carry out the changes that you have decided upon.

For example, if your organization is trying to bring about increased access to contraceptives for area youth, you might send your best politician to area drug stores to ask to pharmacists to provide contraception in a confidential way. Then, ask the graphic artist in your group to design a card with the names of the pharmacies that will do so.

Consider the possible barriers to implementing your proposed changes, and possible ways to remove these barriers. Some questions you might ask yourselves include:

• Do we have enough money to carry out your proposed action steps? (Are there any grants we can apply for?)
• Do we have enough staff and volunteer capacity? (Can we recruit more volunteers?)
• Do we have enough time to carry out these changes?
• Are these action steps things people can get excited about?
• What kind of opposition can we expect if we put our plan into effect? Are there ways to get around it?

For instance, in the example given above dealing with contraceptives, pharmacists might be worried that their name next to the slogan, "Get your condoms here!" might hurt their business. A card that just had the names and phone numbers of your agency and of their establishments, however, might calm these fears and give the pharmacies some free, welcome publicity.

Brainstorm different ways (your action steps) to go about implementing the proposed changes in each sector that you have chosen. Be sure to have someone take good notes! Again, make sure each action step includes:

• What will occur
• How much, or to what extent, these actions will occur
• Who will carry out these changes
• When these changes will take place, and for how long
• What resources (such as money and staff) are needed to carry out these changes

Example: The RTR Coalition

One action step might include increasing publicity about contraception and unwanted pregnancy at the local high school.

• What action or change will occur: Hanging posters, displays, and other information about contraception and the facts about unwanted pregnancy in the hallways of the local high school.
• How much, or to what extent, this action will occur: The posters and other information will become a permanent part of the high school. Posters and information will be regularly changed as new materials become available.
• Who will carry it out: A sub-committee comprised of parents, teachers, students, and coalition members will be responsible for maintaining the displays. The coalition as a whole will work towards finding funding to purchase the materials. Several coalition members will be responsible for researching and ordering the materials.
• When will it take place, and for how long: The coalition will try to have posters hanging and displays visible within six months of implementing the action step.
• What resources are needed to carry out the step: The coalition will try to approach the school district to request funding for the project. Otherwise, the coalition will seek funding from other sources such as foundations to finance the program. To make the process as clear as possible, members of the coalition should account for each point of each action step. Then, with written goals in hand, you will have the concrete steps you need to take in order to implement your plan.

Determine a final list of action steps for each community sector from the ideas that came from your brainstorming. Try to determine lists that are feasible, effective, and comprehensive.

Example:

Some strategies for preventing child maltreatment and neglect (from the Center for Community Health and Development's Preventing Child Abuse and Neglect: An Action Planning Guide for Building a Caring Community), listed by community sector:

Changes in the schools:

• Provide training on anger management and stress reduction techniques for parents.
• Require classes in prevention of child maltreatment and neglect for renewal of teacher certification and for school nurses.
• Provide space and supervision on school facilities for weekend, after-school, and vacation activities for children.

Changes in health organizations:

• Provide health care credits for parents who participate in child maltreatment and neglect workshops.
• Provide training for health professionals on screening for maltreatment and neglect.
• Develop specific and comprehensive policies regarding mandatory reporting.

Changes in businesses and work sites:

• Offer workshops on stress relief and anger management to employees.
• Offer training on parenting skills, including prenatal and infant care.
• Provide flexible work schedule to accommodate parents' schedules.

Changes in government and social services:

• Provide tax incentives to parents who participate in child maltreatment prevention activities, such as classes on parenting skills
• Develop comprehensive laws regarding perpetrators of child maltreatment and neglect
• Increase protection for all people who have experienced domestic violence through specific policies and access to shelters.

Changes in community organizations:

• Provide a community board that lists job openings, childcare, and important community dates and events.
• Provide help in obtaining public or legal assistance for families in need.
• Increase the number of agencies and organizations that conduct parenting classes.

Changes in religious organizations:

• Create a network among ministers to discuss strategies for preventing maltreatment and neglect.
• Provide counseling and follow-up with people who feel at risk of harming a loved one.
• Distribute inserts for church bulletins on the prevention of child maltreatment and neglect.

Pat yourself on the back for getting all your planning done, take a deep breath, and go do what you've said you are going to!

___You know what action steps are

___You understand why you should identify action steps

___You know when you should identify action steps

___You know how to identify action steps

___Determine what your group, as a whole and individually, is really good at

___Brainstorm different, specific ways that these strengths can be used to carry out the changes that you have decided upon

___Consider the possible barriers to implementing your proposed changes

___Consider possible ways to remove these barriers

___With all of the above information in mind, brainstorm different ways to go about implementing the proposed changes in each sector that you have chosen

___Make sure each action step includes:

• What will occur
• How much, or to what extent, these actions will occur
• Who will carry out these changes
• When these changes will take place, and for how long
• What resources (such as money and staff) are needed to carry out these changes

___Determine a final list of action steps for each community sector from the ideas that came from your brainstorming

___Pat yourself on the back for getting all your planning done, take a deep breath, and go do what you've said you are going to!

Tool 1: Action Steps for Identified Changes

Use this form to identify the changes you want to accomplish and which steps you might take to accomplish it.

Community Focus Area: _________________

Community Change to be Sought: ________________________________________________________

Collaborating Organization(s)/Group(s):_______________________ Community Sector: _____________________

Action Steps

Action Steps	By Whom	By When	Resources and Support Available / Needed	Potential Barriers or Resistance	Communication Plan for Implementation
What needs to be done?	Who will take actions?	By what date will the action be done?	What financial, human, political, and other resources are needed? Which are already available?	What individuals and organizations might resist? How?	What individuals and organizations should be informed about these actions?

 

Tool 2: Action Planning Guides from the KU Center for Community Health and Development

Community and Public Health Action Planning Guides

• Reducing Risk for Chronic Disease
• Promoting Health for All: Improving Access and Eliminating Disparities in Community Health
• Promoting Healthy Living and Preventing Chronic Disease
• Your Action Planning Guide for Promoting Full Community Participation Among People with Disabilities

Child and Youth Health and Development Action Planning Guides

• Bridging the Word Gap Community Action Planning Guide
• Preventing Adolescent Substance Use
• Preventing Adolescent Pregnancy
• Preventing Youth Violence
• Preventing Child Abuse and Neglect
• Youth Development
• Promoting Child Well-Being

Community Development and Capacity Building Action Planning Guides

• Promoting Urban Neighborhood Development: Improving Housing, Jobs, Education, Safety and Health, and Human Development
• Work Group Evaluation Handbook
• Concerns Report Handbook: Planning for Community Health

A PowerPoint presentation summarizing the major points in the section.

• What is organizational structure?

• Why should you develop a structure for your organization?

• When should you develop a structure for your organization?

 

 

What is organizational structure?

By structure, we mean the framework around which the group is organized, the underpinnings which keep the coalition functioning. It's the operating manual that tells members how the organization is put together and how it works. More specifically, structure describes how members are accepted, how leadership is chosen, and how decisions are made.

Why should you develop a structure for your organization?

• Structure gives members clear guidelines for how to proceed. A clearly-established structure gives the group a means to maintain order and resolve disagreements.
• Structure binds members together. It gives meaning and identity to the people who join the group, as well as to the group itself.
• Structure in any organization is inevitable -- an organization, by definition, implies a structure. Your group is going to have some structure whether it chooses to or not. It might as well be the structure which best matches up with what kind of organization you have, what kind of people are in it, and what you see yourself doing.

When should you develop a structure for your organization?

It is important to deal with structure early in the organization's development. Structural development can occur in proportion to other work the organization is doing, so that it does not crowd out that work. And it can occur in parallel with, at the same time as, your organization's growing accomplishments, so they take place in tandem, side by side. This means that you should think about structure from the beginning of your organization's life. As your group grows and changes, so should your thinking on the group's structure.

Elements of Structure

While the need for structure is clear, the best structure for a particular coalition is harder to determine. The best structure for any organization will depend upon who its members are, what the setting is, and how far the organization has come in its development.

Regardless of what type of structure your organization decides upon, three elements will always be there. They are inherent in the very idea of an organizational structure.

They are:

• Some kind of governance
• Rules by which the organization operates
• A distribution of work

Governance

The first element of structure is governance - some person or group has to make the decisions within the organization.

Rules by which the organization operates

Another important part of structure is having rules by which the organization operates. Many of these rules may be explicitly stated, while others may be implicit and unstated, though not necessarily any less powerful.

Distribution of work

Inherent in any organizational structure also is a distribution of work. The distribution can be formal or informal, temporary or enduring, but every organization will have some type of division of labor.

There are four tasks that are key to any group:

• Envisioning desired changes. The group needs someone who looks at the world in a slightly different way and believes they can make others look at things from the same point of view.
• Transforming the community. The group needs people who will go out and do the work that has been envisioned.
• Planning for integration. Someone needs to take the vision and figure out how to accomplish it by breaking it up into strategies and goals.
• Supporting the efforts of those working to promote change. The group needs support from the community to raise money for the organization, champion the initiative in the state legislature, and ensure that they continue working towards their vision.

Common Roles

Every group is different, and so each will have slightly different terms for the roles individuals play in their organization, but below are some common terms, along with definitions and their typical functions.

• An initial steering committee is the group of people who get things started. Often, this group will create plans for funding, and organizational and board development. It may also generate by-laws, and then dissolve. If they continue to meet after approximately the first six months, we might say they have metamorphosed into a coordinating council.
• A coordinating council (also referred to as a coordinating committee, executive committee, and executive council), modifies broad, organization-wide objectives and strategies in response to input from individuals or committees.
• Often, one person will take the place of the coordinating council, or may serve as its head. Such a person may be known as the Executive Director, Project Coordinator, Program Director, or President. They sometimes have a paid position, and may coordinate, manage, inspire, supervise, and support the work of other members of the organization.
• Task forces are made up of members who work together around broad objectives. Task forces integrate the ideas set forward with the community work being done.

For example, from the director of a coalition to reduce violence in a medium-sized city: "Currently, we have three operational task forces. Members of each have an ongoing dialogue with members of the coordinating council, and also with their action committees. The oldest was formed with the goal of eliminating domestic violence about fifteen years ago, when a local woman was killed by her husband. Then, after several outbreaks of violence in the schools a few years back, our group offered to help, and a second task force sprung up around reducing youth violence. We've just started a third, with the goal of increasing gun safety.

"All of it is interrelated, and all of it applies to our mission of increasing the safety of residents of South Haven, as well as that of our visitors. But each task force is contributing to that mission in vastly different ways, with different objectives, and using different strategies. 'Cause, you know, the strategies you use to stop a ninth grader from bringing a gun to school just aren't the same as the ones you use to stop a 40-year-old man on unemployment from beating his wife."

•  Action committees bring about specific changes in programs, policies, and practices in the sectors in which they work.

For example, the task force on domestic violence mentioned above has the following action committees:

• A government and law enforcement committee. Members include police officers, lawyers, a judge, and a state representative. Currently, they are trying to pass laws with stronger penalties for those convicted of domestic violence, especially repeat offenders. They are also training officers to be better able to spot a harmful relationship, and better able to inform a person who has experienced domestic violence of their options.
• A social services committee. Members (who include representatives from most of the service agencies in town) work to assure that staff members know where to send someone for the resources they need. They are also trying to increase the number of trained volunteer counselors who work at the domestic violence shelter.
• A media committee. Members include local journalists, writers, and graphic designers. They keep the project and the issue in the public's minds as much as possible with editorials, articles and news clips of events, as well as advertisements and public service announcements.

•  Support committees are groups that help ensure that action committees or other individuals will have the resources and opportunities necessary to realize their vision. Financial and media committees are examples of committees formed to help support or facilitate your work.
• Community trustees, also known as the board of trustees or as the board of directors, provide overall support, advice, and resources to members of the action groups. They are often either people who are directly affected by the issue or have stature in the community. That way, they are able to make contacts, network with other community leaders, and generally remove or weaken barriers to meeting organizational objectives.
• Grantmakers are another part of the picture. Grantmakers exist on an international, national, state, and local level and may be private companies and foundations, or local, county, state, or federal government organizations (for example, block grants given by the city would fall into this category).
• Support organizations (not to be confused with the support committees listed above) are groups that can give your organization the technical assistance it needs.
• Partner organizations are other groups working on some of the same issues as your organization.

Although this list is pretty extensive, your organization may only use two or three of the above mentioned roles, especially at the beginning. It's not uncommon for a group to start with a steering committee, ask others to serve as board members, and then recruit volunteers who will serve as members of action committees. In this broad spectrum of possibilities, consider: Where does your organization fit in? Where do you want to be?

Examples of Structure

So how can all of these pieces be put together? Again, the form a community group takes should be based on what it does, and not the other way around. The structures given are simply meant to serve as examples that have been found to be effective for some community-based organizations; they can and should be adapted and modified for your own group's purposes.

 A relatively complex structure

Example - The Ste. Genevieve's Children's Coalition

The Ste. Genevieve's Children's Coalition is a relatively large community-based group. They have a coordinating council, a media committee, and three task forces, dealing with adolescent pregnancy, immunization, and child hunger. Each of the task forces has action committees as well. For example, the adolescent pregnancy reduction task force has a schools committee that focuses on keeping adolescent parents in school and modifying the human sexuality curriculum. A health organizations committee focuses on increasing access and use of the youth clinic. The media committee works to keep children's issues in the news, and includes professionals from the local television stations, radio stations, newspaper, and a marketing professional. The coordinating council is composed of the executive director, her assistant, the media committee chair, and the chairs of each of the three task forces. A board of directors has been invaluable in helping keep the coalition financially viable.

In diagram form, a complex organization might look like this:

And in diagram form:

 

As smaller size means fewer people, these groups are usually less complex, as they have less need for a formal hierarchy and instead have governance that is consensus-based. A diagram of such a small group might look something like this, with each of the circles representing an individual member:

What type of structure should you choose?

First, decide upon the formality your organization will have. The following table, adapted from The Spirit of Coalition Building can help you make this first decision.

Conditions favoring more or less formality in organizational structures
Condition	A looser, less formal, less rule bound structure would be favored when...	A tighter, more formal, more rule-bound structure would be favored when...
Stage of organization development	The organization is just starting	The organization is in later stages of development
Prior relationships among members	Many such relationships already exist	Few such relationships already exist
Prior member experience in working together	Many such experiences have occurred	Few such experiences have occurred
Member motivation to be part of the organization	Motivation is high	Motivation is low
Number of organization tasks or issues (broadness of purpose)	There is a single task or issue	There are multiple tasks or issues
Organization size	The organization is small	The organization is large
Organization leadership	The leadership is experienced	The leadership is inexperienced
Urgency for action	There is no particular urgency to take action now	There is strong urgency to take action now

Organizational structure is something that is best decided upon internally, through a process of critical thinking and discussion by members of the group.

In your discussions, your answers to the following list of questions may guide your decisions.

• What is your common purpose? How broad is it? Groups with broader purposes often have more complicated structures, complete with many layers and parts, than do groups with more narrow purposes.
• Is your group advocacy oriented or service oriented? Service organizations use "top down," one-person-in-charge structure much more often than do advocacy based groups.
• Is your organization more centralized (e.g., through the work of a specific agency ) or decentralized (e.g., different neighborhoods working independently on the same problem)? A decentralized group might find a "top-down" structure inappropriate, as such a group often has several peers working together on an issue.
• How large is your organization? How large do you envision it becoming? A very small organization may wish to remain relatively informal, while a community-wide group might require a more formal structure. A related question, with similar consequences, is:
• How large is the community in which you work?
• How old is your organization? How long do you envision it lasting? A group formed to resolve a single issue might not need a formal structure at all, while an organization with long-term goals may want something more concrete, with clearer divisional responsibilities and authority.
• Is the organization entirely volunteer, or are there (or will there be) paid staff? How many? An organization with many paid staff members may find it more necessary to have people "in charge," as there are generally more rules and responsibilities for paid staff members, and thus, there must be more supervision in carrying out these roles.
• Should yours be a new organization, or part of an existing structure? Do you really need to form a new structure, or would it be better to work within existing structures? Sometimes, your goals may be better met if you are part of (or linked with) another organization.

In Summary

Structure is what ensures that your organization will function smoothly and as you intended. You should think about structure early in the development of your organization, but be aware that the type that fits best may change as your organization grows.

___You have met with other members of the organization to discuss the best structure for your organization

___You have chosen the relative formality your organization will have

___You have chosen your organization's structure, based on your understanding that:

• Structure is the framework around which the group is organized
• Structure gives members clear guidelines for how to proceed
• Structure binds members together
• Structure in any organization is inevitable
• Structure should occur in proportion and parallel with other work the organization is doing

You understand that:

___Three elements of structure are

• Some kind of governance
• Rules by which the organization operates
• Distribution of work

___Four tasks are inherent to community work:

• Envisioning desired changes
• Transforming the community
• Planning for integration
• Supporting the efforts of those working to promote change

___You've established necessary committees or subgroups based on your understanding of common roles in community organizations. These roles can be linked together for small, medium, and larger groups

• A steering committee is the group of people who get things started
• A coordinating council modifies broad, organization-wide objectives and strategies in response to input from individuals or committees
• The executive director often takes the place of or serves at the head of the coordinating council
• Task forces are made up of members who work together around broad objectives
• Action committees are formed by larger organizations to bring about the changes sought by the organization
• Support committees are groups that help ensure that action committees or other individuals will have the resources and opportunities necessary to realize their vision
• Community trustees provide overall support, advice, and resources to organization members
• Grantmakers can be public or private. They offer financial support to organizations
• Support organizations are groups that offer technical assistance
• Partner organizations work on the same issues as your organization

Example: Interview with Brian Dawson, Community Consultant for the Ellis County, KS Community Partnership

CTB: Talk a little about the structural development of a group you have worked with.

Brian Dawson: When I worked in Mitchell County, KS, we were trying to construct a coalition to address substance use issues. There had been a lot of abuse and accidents. People were finally speaking out, saying "enough was enough." There had been a lot of denial from the community. They were not admitting they had a problem until it got to a certain level. A few attempts at addressing the problem were made.

I worked with the community members that were passionate about getting something done. We developed a steering committee. This group became the motivational force behind the developing coalition. These people had a real degree of personal interest and they started working through grass roots efforts to incorporate and recruit people to get involved. Attempts at including key leaders in the community to become part of the coalition were made.

From there, they developed an advisory board that would review information and consider how the group should act and what approach they should take. They wound up applying for a 501(c)(3) status, so they could apply for grant opportunities, funding, and operate under a not-for-profit status. They continually went back to their goals and missions and reevaluated to make sure they were doing what they intended to do, which was impact the problems of substance use.

Over a period of time they had to change or at least keep trying to encourage new people to get on board. You have to keep people interested and dedicated. Just because an accident has occurred doesn't mean you can relax. Prevention needs to be long term and continually working to improve the community.

CTB: Did you find it difficult to get other leaders involved in the organization? 

Brian Dawson: That's a complex question. Yes and no. If they've got an interest in (the issue ) or if they have a political tie, the key leaders may become involved. If the community really wants someone to get involved they do have an influence in numbers. It's important to have people involved that can make change happen such as your mayor, county attorney, a judge, or somebody that's going to give you some leverage for policy changes. You need to have some people that are going to be able to make changes in that community or in your area. Otherwise, you're going to have a tough, uphill battle. So try and approach key leaders, educate them on your efforts, and get them involved at some level so that they can help you out.

CTB: You were talking about using leverage to convince them to join. What kind leverage does a new coalition have?

Statistical information is valuable to persuade attitudes and involvement. The voice of the masses can persuade a political or elected official to join the group, especially if it will help them politically to be involved. The coalition needs to do their homework to best represent the case for support. You've got to have a selling point. And you've got to have the information and the personal touch there that's going to get people involved. Otherwise, you might be just spinning your wheels.

Also, it's important to have a clear vision and mission statement on what your coalition is all about. Coalition members need to be in agreement of the vision and goals. It's okay to have different opinions, but the group on the whole has to want the same outcome.

CTB: Do you think it's more important to have key leaders as members of your initial steering committee, or are they people you want for your board later on?

Brian Dawson: It's not so important, I don't think, to have key leaders on the committee that gets everything started. But once you are established, it's important to have key leaders on the board to give it some weight. If the issues are important for the community, key leaders are typically going to be on the board or have some kind of connection. They wouldn't be in those positions if they weren't there working for the benefit of the community.

A key leader is someone who can influence individuals in your community's schools, government, law enforcement, social services, etc. A key leader's involvement is essential in providing credibility, accessing resources, removing barriers and supporting community prevention efforts.

CTB: Do you have any advice for others working on organizational structure?

Brian Dawson: Really think about what you want to accomplish, develop a vision, and try to develop from there. It's helpful to have an advisory board to steer the coalition, legal counsel is helpful (maybe an attorney can get on the coalition board), by-laws, mission statements, and a consensus from the group to reach certain goals. Define success for your coalition so you will be able to monitor your efforts. You can develop subcommittees to work on the grassroots efforts of recruiting people and funding.

A PowerPoint presentation summarizing the major points in the section.

Adolescent violence, HIV infection, adult literacy, or any situation in your town that has reached a point where you've decided something has to be done are all times when you might have to create and gather a group to guide your initiative. You know you can't be effective all by yourself, so you want to try to put together a group to look at the problem, come up with some ideas about what can be done about it, and then create and implement an action plan to move forward.

But what would that group look like? Who would its members be, and where would you find them? How would it function? What would it actually do? This section will help you think about how to actually form such a group that can start and oversee an initiative designed to meet a community need.

Why would you want to create and gather a group to guide your initiative?

Assembling a group to guide the organization or initiative in its beginning stages has some distinct advantages over trying to do the same thing as an individual:

• It lends credibility and community support to the effort. Especially if the group is diverse, and represents a number of different organizations, interests, and parts of the community, it essentially gives the community a sense of ownership of the organization or initiative. This makes it much more likely that it will continue to have the community's enthusiastic support, even long after the group has been disbanded.
• It allows more ideas to come into play. Two heads are often better than one, and ten are better than two, although sometimes harder to reconcile. While it can be a lot of work to sort out the different ideas of many group members, the consensus you come to is likely to be more interesting and effective than what you could have developed alone.
• It affords an opportunity to educate the community about the issue. Everyone 's in favor of adult literacy, for instance, but very few - including staff people of health and human service agencies - understand how many adults need literacy services. As members of an oversight group for a community literacy initiative, however, they 'll have the opportunity to learn a great deal about the issue and the actual potential for addressing it. And they'll spread the word as they learn.
• It gives new organizations and initiatives the benefit of others' experience. Even if the oversight group is largely made up of individuals from the community rather than agencies and organizations, many of those people may have founded their own businesses, started other organizations, been on community Boards, etc. Both these individuals and those who work for other organizations will have valuable knowledge and experience that can save your organization or initiative enormous amounts of time and trouble.
• It provides a base for membership, fundraising, and other support. Each of the people in the group will know literally hundreds of others - far more than you would have any chance of contacting on your own - and many of those others will be only too willing to help if only they are asked. The networking possibilities are endless.
• It provides personal support to its members and to the people who started the initiative in the first place. This kind of support can be extremely important when things look bleak... and they will, at least occasionally, in any community initiative.

When starting a new organization, you'll often find that the people involved don 't know each other well enough yet to really know who might make the best leaders. Yet there is still a lot of work to be done in laying the groundwork for this new entity. Forming a group is a way to get some of these important things done before figuring out what the ultimate governing structure will be:

• Deciding the initial direction of the organization
• Forming a vision and mission for the organization
• Determining and recruiting potential partners
• Creating an action plan
• Choosing people to head individual committees and be in charge of specific tasks

A group is also useful when your organization has started working on many tasks, but doesn't yet have - or will never have - a staff. The group may act as a substitute for an individual coordinator or director, either of an organization or initiative, or of an event or particular area of an organization's functioning.

What kinds of groups might foster the development of an initiative?

This question really has two sets of answers. The first depends on whether the group is one of individuals or a coalition of organizations; and the second involves the different ways such groups can function. Let's start by examining whether, for your particular purposes, you're more likely to put together a group of individuals or one of organizations.

Ways groups can be formed

Organizations and initiatives get started in a number of ways, and the nature of the groups that guide them is usually determined by how they originate.

One person sees a problem in her community and decides to do something about it. In this instance, the group assembled is often a group of individuals - typically friends or acquaintances of the initiator - who either have some personal reason to be concerned, or are simply community-minded and interested in the issue.

When her teen-age son was beaten up on the way home from school, a woman in a small town decided that adolescent violence needed to be dealt with. She put up posters, made phone calls, and gathered 35 parents and adolescents at an initial meeting to discuss the issue. Out of this first meeting grew a community initiative that involved both parents and adolescents in discussions, workshops, and theater performances. With help from a local agency, the group got a grant, and continues - successfully - to try to reduce adolescent violence in the town.

An organization, community institution (a church, for instance), or local government agency takes the lead in tackling a community issue. In this kind of situation, the group formed is likely to be a coalition with a mixed membership of representatives of organizations and individuals representing only themselves.

An organization decides to write a proposal for available funding to deal with an issue that requires a group response. The group assembled in a case like this is generally by definition a coalition of other groups, but may include individuals from the community as well.

A community action agency responded to a request for proposals (RFP) from the state Department of Education for a community effort to serve families experiencing increased risk of children under four. A stipulation of the RFP was that the proposal be agreed upon by a coordinating body for the effort. A group representing community health and human service agencies, parents, schools, and others was assembled by the community action agency, and, when the proposal was successful, became the oversight body for the initiative.

A coalition that already exists identifies a problem and resolves to address it. Here, the coalition is the group that begins the process. It may remain the group that spearheads the initiative, or, as in this example, it may spin off a group that ultimately takes charge.

The North Quabbin Community Coalition in central Massachusetts is made up of representatives of health and human service agencies, the Chamber of Commerce, the police, the schools, local politicians, and other interested community members. Appalled by the high incidence of child sexual maltreatment in the area, the Coalition formed a Child Sexual Assault Task Force which launched a community initiative to try to change the situation. The initiative in turn grew into an organization that provides parenting training and children's activities, and has become a permanent fixture in the community.

While both organizations and individuals have their own priorities and interests, organizational rules and politics add other elements into the mix. A group of organizations needs to function differently than a group of individuals does, because it has to take everyone's organizational issues into account. The simple matter of whether or not people are on the clock when they attend group meetings can affect how the group operates, as can the concerns of Boards, the requirements of different organizations' funders, and the organizations' mission statements. All that has to be considered when you look at how the group might function.

Ways your group can function

Groups that oversee initiatives go by a number of names which are often used interchangeably. As a result, the descriptions below may not fit your own experience. These names, nonetheless, imply different ways of operating, and it would make sense to think about what might work best in your situation.

Steering committee

A steering committee, as the name implies, steers the organization or initiative at the beginning. The committee develops action plans, considers the political and other implications of what the organization or initiative is doing, and may develop vision and mission statements and organizational structure, and create plans for funding and Board development. As is explained in Section 1 of this chapter, however, steering committees, at least in the definition used in the Tool Box, are meant to dissolve once the initial work is done. If they continue to meet after the first six months or so, then they have become a coordinating council.

Coordinating council

A coordinating council often does many of the same things as a steering committee, but also coordinates the organization's or initiative's activity. It essentially takes the place of a director or program coordinator, modifying broad, organization-wide objectives and strategies in response to input from individuals or committees. If the organization or initiative stages a public demonstration, for instance, the members of the coordinating council would be the ones running around making sure that everyone knew where they were supposed to be when, that the media was informed and courted, that the portable toilets were in place, etc. If you think of an organization as a wheel, the coordinating council is the hub holding everything together. The hub collects and directs the energy from the spokes - and without it, the wheel would fall apart.

Advisory or supporting committee (or council or board)

An advisory committee may have no real power at all, but may guide the organization or initiative through its members' knowledge of the community and the issue, and may lend its members' prestige to the cause when necessary. It may help to develop a vision and mission for the organization, but will probably not be the determining body in that effort. Advisory committees often exist in situations where the initiative is really the work of one charismatic or visionary individual who needs help and support, but doesn't particularly want guidance.

Board of Directors

In this instance, the group will function as the governing (but probably not coordinating) body for the organization. A board of directors usually works with staff to set policy for and oversee the functioning of an organization.

Other possibilities

There are numerous other forms that a group might take. A core group, for instance, might assemble a larger group that ultimately takes one of the forms listed above. An executive committee might make decisions for a larger group, and thus effectively guide the initiative. There is no one right way to start a community initiative or organization.

If you're hoping to hire staff eventually, a steering committee might work best for you, since it won't need to guide the organization for very long. If you're starting a community initiative or coalition that probably won't ever have staff, a coordinating council might make more sense, since it will provide continuity as well as the capacity to form and direct the group from the beginning. A Board of Directors is most appropriate for an organization that already has a sense of itself. The main consideration is what will be most effective for the organization or initiative you're starting.

As you decide what kind of group will serve your organization or initiative best, you need to consider the needs and priorities of the organizations and individuals involved; the degree of involvement you're asking for; the amount of time group members will need to put in; and what the group is actually going to do. These factors will be discussed further in the course of this section.

When in the process should the group be formed?

The group, if it is to be most useful, should be formed as early in the process as possible. You want it in place, for instance, so its members can participate in developing a vision and mission. You're far less likely to find support - and far less likely to form an effective organization or initiative - if you present a potential oversight group with an already-formed organization or initiative. Furthermore, it's much harder to change your ideas, even if it becomes obvious that they're unworkable, once you have them set in a plan. Recruiting a group at the beginning will help avoid this kind of issue.

Another reason for recruiting your group early is that it allows your organization or initiative to hit the ground running once your plan is in place. As mentioned above, the group can act as coordinator either until you hire staff (which, depending upon where funding enters into the equation, may be a while), or - in the case of many community initiatives which operate without staff - permanently.

Who should be involved, and where do you find them?

For your group, you'll want enough people to get everything done, but not so many as to make things too complicated. Those numbers can vary tremendously - there are effective groups of 10 or fewer, and of as many as 30 or more. Here are a few general guidelines about the type of people to involve:

• People who are enthusiastic about the issue and who have the time and energy to invest in making it successful
• It's important to involve people who will be able to regularly attend meetings and be involved. For some types of bodies, such as advisory councils, this may be less important, but for the work done by steering committees and coordinating councils you'll want people who are willing to roll up their sleeves and jump in.
• A good cross-section of the community in terms of race, socioeconomic status, etc.
• Members of the specific priority community
• Other obvious stakeholders in the issue. If your initiative is meant to reduce substance use, for instance, you may want to include the police in your group, since they're the ones who often deal with the problem on the street.
• Recognized leaders in the community can add clout and credibility to your cause
• Newer, up-and-coming leaders and people who hold no titles but are well respected in the community can also be very helpful
• Unless they gave the issue a bad name, be sure to consult and perhaps involve people who've had experience with your cause in this community in the past

In situations like this, you have to do your history homework. If you're trying to start an organization to offer services to people experiencing homelessness, for instance, it's vital to know what has been attempted along these lines in the past, and what the result was. If the experience left a bad taste in people's mouths, you're going to have a much tougher time. You need to know that, and to counter it as best you can. If the people who were involved in the past attempt are respected for what they did, then they should be involved in what you're doing. If the community thinks that they made a mess of the whole thing, or that they're dishonest, their participation will make your effort look like more of the same. Those who don't learn history are condemned to repeat it.

• Try to get some youth involved; they often have a fresh perspective on things and tons of infectious energy.
• Be sure that at least one person on board is a good writer, and that they, or at least one other member, have had some experience with funding proposals; they will be instrumental in writing early grant proposals, press releases, and so on.

It's crucial to be aware that some people you want to include may have less experience being members of groups, and of this type of group than others. Although 'meeting skills' may seem basic, not everyone has the same background, and some people may never have been exposed to that type of situation. Thus, some participants may sit silent, confused by the flow of the meeting, unable to contribute, and feeling foolish; or they may speak or act in ways or at times others deem inappropriate. People without meeting skills need support and encouragement in what is often for them an intimidating situation. One answer may be to pair all team members, so that those who need support will have a mentor. Another possibility is to start the process with a training for everyone in group dynamics and meeting skills, so that no one is singled out and the ground rules are clear for all.

Where can you find these folks? Consider these possibilities to look for steering committee or coordinating council members:

• Local colleges or universities, schools, and libraries
• Local government officials and agencies
• Economic development organizations
• Civic organizations
• Social and sports clubs and community centers, especially in neighborhoods you particularly want to reach
• Chamber of Commerce and other business organizations
• Social service agencies
• Youth groups and organizations
• Churches and other organizations in the faith community
• Flyers in laundromats, markets, etc. that cater to the priority population or to others you specifically want to reach

As you begin your search - or perhaps even before - you'll meet, or realize you know, people who will introduce you to others who will introduce you to others. Networking is, in reality, probably the way you'll find most of your group.

What should your steering committee or coordinating council do?

Now that you've formed a group to oversee the creation and operation of your new organization or initiative, what will it actually do? In fact, there's an enormous amount of work to do in getting something new off the ground, and, depending upon how things play out, this group may do most of it. A not-necessarily-exhaustive list might include:

• Form a vision and mission for the organization. This is the first step in any process of this sort. It defines what it is the organization or initiative exists to address, and what its philosophical, political, and ethical base consists of. You can't go anywhere until you've hashed those things out, and it's worth the time it takes. (And it will take time: how much depends to some extent on how diverse the group is.) This will probably be the most important task this group takes on.
• Decide the initial direction of the organization. What's the organization or initiative about? The fact that you have a vision and a mission statement doesn't mean you know exactly what to do to carry them out. The direction of the organization is the way you'll address the issue, and there may be many choices. One of the most important is whether to create an organization that will run intervention programs of some sort for a priority population, or whether to concentrate on advocacy, public education, linkage, or some other effort that addresses the issue, but doesn't offer direct service to those affected.
• Create an action plan. After deciding what your organization or initiative is going to do, the next step is to determine how to do it. The first action plan may not actually lay out how the organization will operate, but rather how to get it started. If you're going to operate an intervention program, you need funding, staff, space, equipment, etc. If you're going to concentrate on advocacy, you may need only volunteers and communication capability, or your group may already be ready to go. In either case, you're going to need a plan for what to do next.

Although it may seem early to consider this, during planning is the time to start thinking about whether your group is going to be a permanent part of the initiative, or if it's going to disband at some point when a different permanent structure is in place. The decision of whether to dissolve the group or to keep it running the organization depends upon the financial, political, and personal realities of the situation, the dedication of the oversight group, and the actual needs of the organization or initiative and of the community. Many groups begin with the assumption that they 'll dissolve, and in fact this decision - whatever it is - should be part of the action plan. It avoids a great deal of potential trouble if the group makes the decision early in the process.

• Find partners for the organization. If the founding group is a coalition of organizations, this task may have already been accomplished. If not, let the networking begin!
• Establish and oversee sub-committees (budget, planning, organizational, marketing, etc.) if that seems necessary to carry out the tasks of the group.
• Hire staff, if that's part of the plan.
• Plan and coordinate the activities of the organization or initiative, if hiring staff isn't part of the plan.

Whether or not to hire staff is obviously a crucial decision for an organization or initiative. The reality of nitty-gritty issues like money and the availability of people's time will enter into the decision, as will the question of what tasks really need to be accomplished. If the group is purely an advocacy organization, for instance, it may be able to operate quite effectively with just the efforts - probably considerable - of the oversight group. If it's trying to deliver services, it may need some staff and some sort of at least part-time regular coordination.

• Apply for grants and seek other funding for seed money for the organization or initiative. (This may be the job of staff after they're hired, or the group may take it on itself.)
• Put together a Board for the organization or initiative. This task may also devolve upon staff if there is a staff. It also implies that the oversight group will disband at the point that a Board exists.

In Summary

It often makes sense, in founding a new organization or initiative, to put together (if one doesn't already exist), a group to oversee its development and at least its initial operation. It's important to select, early in the process, a group that includes the important stakeholders and key supporters and is representative of the diversity of the community. That group's involvement in the creation of the organization and in planning what it will do can greatly increase its chances of success.

Why should you form a group?

___Support of a cause

___More ideas

___Community involvement

___Personal support

When should you form a group?

___As early in the process as possible

What kind of people should you include in your group?

___Enthusiastic people

___Young

___Natural leaders

___Regular attendees of meetings

___Good writers

___Experienced people

What should your steering committee or coordinating council do?

___Create the mission and vision statements of the group

___Create a plan a action

___Create organizational structures

___Choose leaders for tasks

___Designate Board of Directors duties

___Designate advisory support committee duties

Example: Northeast Coalition Steering Committee

Harry Schwartz is a consultant to the steering committee for the Northeast Coalition, a coalition that has been started to improve and develop the Northeast neighborhood of Kansas City, Kansas. Schwartz has been helping them organize the coalition and steering committee and undertake their first activities.

The steering committee came about following a report that suggested that the neighborhood should be represented by an umbrella group that would advocate for the needs of local citizens and groups. In the next few months, the steering committee will be transformed into a board.

"What we have right now is a very loose association," Schwartz says of the steering committee. "The committee is now made up of representatives of groups in the neighborhood...each member of the committee represents a different group. It's casual, informal, and loose. There's not even a chair, and things are decided without votes but a consensus."

When the coalition becomes legally incorporated, Schwartz says, "they will have to have a board, officers, and bylaws... Right now, it's just some people getting together every few weeks to discuss an issue, except they have a very specific agenda. It's worked, but it's been just informal without any officers or votes or things like that."

The Local Initiatives Support Corporation, one of the groups that released the abovementioned report, called a meeting to which all the groups that they could find in the neighborhood were invited. "About sixty people came, and we broke up into five subgroups. These are people that are already active representing groups. They all had some base in the community. The discussion revolved around what should priorities be for action in the northeast, and people took notes. We got a pretty good agenda for what people were concerned about. Many people didn't know each other, and we mixed them up so we would minimize friends. There were two people from the same group; they were at different tables. So we got a pretty good mix of people. Many of them didn?t know each other before that. And, then, after spending about an hour together, we asked each table to put forth two people for the steering committee, and that's how we got the committee."

Schwartz says the committee members have worked together well so far, and that everyone agreed the process was fair. "We got a very good mix of people from different groups. We've had subsequent general meetings, and people have felt that the committee has been very representative, fair, and inclusive and has talked about the major issues... No one has said, 'You didn't include me,' because the general meetings are open. So the process up to now has been well endorsed, and we hope to continue in that way."

General meetings of the Northeast Coalition steering committee are held every three months and are anyone who wants to come. "Generally, we've had about 55 or 60 people at each meeting probably representing twenty-five to thirty groups," Schwartz says. "There seems to be a lot of agreement as to what the priorities should be for action in the northeast," he adds. The steering committee is focusing on economic development, housing, and "what people generally refer to as communication, which mean a lot of things - finding out the availability of information on all the groups, groups working together, being able to help each other." The group also wants to focus on the needs of younger people, including jobs, school improvements, and safe after-school activities.

According to Schwartz, the following are qualities to look for in a steering committee member:

• People who have experience in the neighborhood or area being covered, either as a resident or a businessperson or someone who works for an agency there
• People who have had a leadership experience before in local groups
• People who are committed to taking the steering committee as a serious responsibility
• People who are familiar with local issues
• People who are articulate
• People who are able to work in a collaborative spirit
• People with a sense of vision and imagination for the neighborhood or area
• People who are mature and well-seasoned
• People with a variety of different points of view - you don't want everybody representing the same types of interests

Tool 1: Steering Committee and Working Group Member Roles

The Collective Impact Forum outlines the key responsibilities of the Steering Committee and Working Group members.
To view the full memo, visit the Steering Committee and Working Group Roles - Collective Impact Forum.

A PowerPoint presentation summarizing the major points in the section.

Creating a task force or an action committee can be an effective way for your initiative to address a specific problem. Such a body needs to be directed specifically toward acting on that problem, and to involve all of the different sectors of the community that are affecting it or affected by it. In this section, we'll discuss what task forces and action committees might look like, what they do, and how to put them together and use them to shape your initiative.

What is a multisector task force or action committee?

A task force or action committee (also sometimes called an ad hoc committee from the Latin meaning "for this purpose") is a group assembled to address a specific problem or accomplish a specific goal. That problem or goal can take at least two different forms:

• It might be related to dealing with a specific community issue - affordable housing, child maltreatment, early detection and treatment of breast cancer.
• It might stem from a need of the larger group. A coalition might need a smaller group to focus on advocacy, for instance, or to draft a set of bylaws.

A multisector task force or action committee is drawn from all sectors of the community affected by or involved in the problem or goal that is the group 's focus. In the Peterson Community example, for instance, the task force leaders tried to include representatives of every group they could think of that had anything to do with the problem of adolescent prescription drug misuse.

Task forces and action committees, as you might assume from their names, are action -oriented. Their specific purpose is to do something. Depending upon the issue they address, their initial goals may be very specific (find community shelter space for at least 15 families experiencing homelessness; draft a timeline for a community economic development effort) or more general (address the problem of youth violence). In either case, however, their purpose is to come up with real results.

In general, these groups are not meant to be permanent. They either disband when their task is done, or they become another kind of group. As will be discussed in more detail later, a task force might spin off a new community intervention, for instance. While that venture would continue the work of the task force, it might not involve any of the first group's members, and would have a different purpose and structure.

A task force or action committee is usually part of a larger initiative - a community coalition of some sort, a local or other government committee, etc. It may be one of several such groups spawned by the initiative, each aimed at a different issue or goal. It may operate independently, or may have to gain approval from the larger group before taking any action.

The North Quabbin Community Coalition, in north central Massachusetts, regularly maintains several task forces working on specific community issues. Some former and current task forces include Information and Referral, Child Sexual Assault, Homelessness, and Youth-Community Relations.

Why would you form a multisector task force or action committee?

There are really two questions here, each of which we'll consider separately:

• Why would you form a task force or action committee?
• Why should a task force or action committee be a multisector group?

Why form a task force or action committee?

There are a number of reasons why you might want to form a task force or action committee, rather than addressing the issue at hand within the larger group.

• Task forces or action committees can make it possible for their parent groups to zero in on the areas that need the most, or immediate, attention, while still addressing their other concerns.
• A task force or action committee can focus in on the specific issue, rather than being pulled in a number of directions, as the larger group may be.
• In general, a small group can operate more efficiently than a large one to get things done.
• Task forces and action committees give people a chance to concentrate on their major areas of interest, and to contribute more effectively to the work of the larger group.
• Task forces and action committees can pull in members who may not be interested in the larger group to work on just the particular issue they are interested in. The community thus benefits from their talents and expertise even though they aren't members of the larger group.

Why should a task force or action committee be multisector?

Including people from as many sectors of the community as possible is almost always both more ethical and more effective than excluding them. This is particularly true when assembling task forces or action committees that are aimed at accomplishing specific goals in a community.

Advantages of a multisector task force or action committee

• Community action usually requires the support, and often the participation, of all stakeholders if it's to be successful.

"Stakeholders" is a term used throughout the Tool Box. It refers to those who are directly affected or have some other interest in a particular issue. The stakeholders in a discussion of discrimination in housing, for instance, include not only the members of underrepresented groups that experience discrimination, but also anti-discrimination enforcement agencies, housing authorities, realtors and their employees, landlords, the police (who may get the first call on a discrimination complaint), legal service agencies, and even homeowners in a particular neighborhood (who may have strong feelings - and not necessarily much information - about including or excluding people from underrepresented groups, and what that will mean for their property values).

• Involvement of all stakeholders in planning and carrying out any action means that they'll take ownership of those plans and actions. They'll be much more concerned about making sure that the action is successful because it's theirs, rather than something imposed on them by "experts" or some other authority.
• Involvement of many sectors of the community brings with it the information and insights that those different sectors have into the issue. More information and insight lead to better planning and more chance of successful action.
• The perspectives of various sectors on community history and personalities can help the group to a real understanding of the issue, including the vital small things that might be otherwise ignored. (Whether or not two individuals get along well may determine whether a given plan is workable, for example. Neighborhood people, who are familiar with the personalities involved, are more apt to know that sort of thing than, say, health professionals.)
• Involving many sectors in the task force or action committee will generate community cooperation and support for the action taken.
• Multisector participation benefits the larger initiative and the community as well, because it brings together individuals and groups who might not, under other circumstances, have much contact, or who might distrust one another. In the work of the task force or action committee, they have the opportunity to learn about one another, and develop mutual trust and respect.
• Finally, it's simply fair and reasonable to involve people in decisions which affect their lives. Those decisions are likely to address the issue more realistically, and to take into account the legitimate needs of the groups affected, if those groups are involved in planning and implementing them.

Possible disadvantages of a multisector group

Although there are many compelling reasons for forming multisector groups, there are potential difficulties with them as well. Even if you understand the history and current situation of your community before you start to assemble such a group, there are still problems you may run into.

• There may be enmity and distrust among segments of the community that are normally at odds, or who have little contact. Some of these may be obvious - racial or ethnic tensions, intergenerational conflict - but some may not, or may be one-sided. People with lower incomes may distrust members of more affluent groups, for instance, even if the latter have good intentions and are trying to be open and welcoming. Politicians who are genuinely concerned with solving the problem may nonetheless be objects of suspicion. Academics may scorn business people, or vice-versa. These areas of conflict have to be resolved if the group is to function well.
• There may be deep-seated disagreement about how to handle the issue. Police may see the answer to a drug problem as more rigorous enforcement, while medical professionals see it as one of treatment, and human service providers as one of addressing the underlying causes - poverty, hopelessness, unemployment, child maltreatment, education, etc.

The simple answer in a situation like this would seem to be "all of the above." If you strengthen enforcement, mandate treatment, and address the underlying causes, you'll make some headway. While that is probably true, you should also consider here the availability of resources and loss of focus.

In order to address enforcement, treatment, and underlying causes all at once, you'll need money and personnel time from a number of different sources. In addition, if you try to focus on all three areas (and each is a tall order even by itself), you risk diluting and scattering your efforts to the point where you can't be effective at anything. Task forces or action committees usually are most successful when their goals are clear, well-defined, and well-focused.

All of that leaves your group with having to somehow reconcile different views of the world and of the issue at hand. It's not impossible, given good will on all hands...but it's not easy, either. It takes good leadership, something we'll look at later in this section.

• Different individuals or groups may have very different levels of commitment to the work of the task force or action committee. This can lead to problems in a relatively small group where everyone depends on everyone else to carry out assignments.
• There may be differences in levels of sophistication, education, and "group skills" among members of the group from different sectors of the community. In order to ensure that everyone's capacities are tapped, some folks may need support, encouragement, and mentoring or training in order to feel comfortable participating.

This situation can either be seen as a potential problem or as a potential advantage, because, while it obviously can act to the detriment of the group if not handled well, it also provides the opportunity to develop leadership from within the community.

When would you form a multisector task force or action committee?

Some issues can be addressed within the context of a larger initiative, or by simply finding more resources for existing organizations or services. When can a multisector task force or action committee best address an issue? Here are some possibilities:

• When the initiative as a whole identifies a specific issue, within its larger mission, that needs to be attended to. This might, as described earlier, be a community problem, such as substance use, or it might be an internal need of the initiative - advocacy, recruitment of new members, etc. In either case, the issue is important for the initiative to address, but too specific for the whole group to work on.
• When new information points out something in the community that can't be ignored.

The North Quabbin Community Coalition referred to earlier found, in the late 1980s, that one town in the region, with a population of just over 10,000, had the third highest number of child sexual assault cases for Massachusetts communities. It was clear that action needed to be taken as quickly as possible, and the Coalition immediately formed a Child Sexual Assault Task Force, which included the police, all the relevant human service and state child protective agencies, parents, the schools, the local hospital and community health center, the YMCA, and other interested parties.

• When an existing task force or action committee realizes its work can't be completed without addressing another area related to its own focus.

A Child Sexual Assault Task Force like that above, for instance, may find that a huge percentage of child sexual assault cases are alcohol-related (as the North Quabbin Task Force in fact found). The initiative might then, at the Task Force's urging, form another task force to address harmful alcohol use in the community.

• When a difficult situation or critical action by an external entity makes attention to a particular issue suddenly more important. If the state cuts health funding for your community, for instance, your initiative might want to form an advocacy task force to mobilize a local effort to get it restored.
• When a group within a larger initiative sees an issue that it particularly wants to concentrate on. If the driving force for the task force or action committee comes from many of its potential members, it is likely that they will be focused and hard-working, and that their efforts will be effective.

There can be a problem here if the issue is not one that particularly needs attention. The energy of those in the self-propelled task force or action committee is then diverted from more important concerns. Leaders of the larger group might try - diplomatically - to turn the task force in a more appropriate direction.

Who might be part of a multisector task force or action committee?

The short answer to who might join a multisector task force or action committee is just about anyone. Here are some considerations when you're recruiting:

Seek members who aren't part of the larger group that the task force or action committee is part of. The only criteria for membership are their interest in the issue, and their willingness to work on it. You can recruit friends and neighbors, program participants, politicians - anyone who can help.

Look for stakeholders and other interested parties. Stakeholders might include:

• Those directly affected by the issue
• Priority populations
• Those who work with those directly affected
• Those responsible for the issue in the community. If the issue involves the law, for instance, as in the case of substance use disorder, the police and court personnel would be appropriate task force members
• Those affected indirectly or secondarily. Businesses are affected by low literacy rates in a community, for instance, because they can't find workers with the skills they need
• Interested community members may have no specific stake in the issue, but may see it as a community problem, and therefore something they should be concerned about

Look for people who can be helpful to the effort. These folks may not be stakeholders, but may be able to offer support and credibility, as well as resources.

Some possibilities:

• Business leaders.
• Clergy and other leaders of the faith community
• Local or state officials
• People who may hold no official position, but who have high standing in the community
• People with access to money or other resources
• People with access to power
• People with access to the priority population

Look to engage people from different sectors. Some examples of different community sectors include:

• Youth
• Older adults
• Business community
• Media
• Schools
• Youth-serving organizations
• Law enforcement agencies
• Religious or fraternal organizations
• Civic and volunteer groups
• Healthcare professionals
• State, local, or tribal governmental agencies
• Community organizations

Ultimately, a cross section of the community on your task force or action committee means more access to different sectors of the community, more credibility among those sectors, more and better information, and more chance of community support and eventual success.

How do you develop a multisector task force or action committee?

If you do decide that you need a task force or action committee to work on an issue for your initiative, what do you do next? In order to put a group together and get it working, there are a number of steps you should take. These steps are essentially the same as those a larger group might take in defining its goals and actions.

Define the relationship of your task force or action committee to the larger group

How are you going to operate within the context of the initiative? There is a broad range of options here, from complete independence to having to check back before taking any step at all.

Three common models:

• The task force or action committee operates independently. In this situation, the larger group delegates authority for the issue in question to the task force that's working on it. It may come back to the initiative for help, support, or resources, or to report on its progress, but the decisions about how to proceed are its own.
• The task force operates fairly independently, but reports back to the larger group on a regular basis. It doesn't need approval to do most things, but can 't commit the initiative to anything, or act in its name, without an official okay.
• The task force needs permission to take any action steps at all. Operating this way, it would probably formulate a plan and get it approved by the larger group. Then, it would have to check with the larger group only if the plan changed.

Decide beforehand exactly what the task force can do on its own, what it needs approval for, and who can give that official okay. In the case of a coalition, for instance, permission might come from the coordinator, a steering committee, an executive board, or a vote of the whole membership.

Once a decision is made about how task forces will operate, that decision will usually hold for all future task forces and action committees of the initiative as well, unless there's a need for something different in a particular circumstance.

In general, the more independent the task force, the more effective it is likely to be, since there may be times when it needs to move quickly. But, at the same time, the more informed the larger group is, the more likely it is to be supportive and available for help when needed. One reasonable way to incorporate both independence and the involvement of the larger group is to create a mechanism for checking back with the group that still allows for speed when necessary. This might mean clearing action with one or two people, or with a small executive committee.

Find the right people to lead your task force or action committee

The person(s) you choose need(s) two characteristics:

• Have, or be able to establish, credibility with all sectors of the population that you need to draw from. (This may mean that the person is an outsider, or a neutral party with no connection to any specific group; or maybe simply someone who's known throughout the community for fairness and integrity, or liked by everyone.)
• Be a good facilitator, who can deal with conflict and keep group members on track and all headed in the same direction.

Given these attributes, some potential leaders might be:

• The coalition or initiative coordinator
• The person(s) most concerned with, or with the most credibility on the issue
• The person(s) who can best articulate the task ahead and see the process for accomplishing it
• A group representing several sectors of the community
• The task force or action committee may be led collaboratively by all its members (you'll still need a facilitator, but that person may change from meeting to meeting)

Identify individuals or groups whose participation your task force can't do without

The questions to ask here are:

• Who are the actual stakeholders in this issue?
• Who are the policymakers, powerbrokers, and others whose permission, support, or membership is necessary to get anything done?
• Who will actually carry out any changes or reforms that your task force succeeds in establishing?

Make an actual list, with both individual names and - if you can't identify an individual - names of groups or sectors of the community who need to be involved. Ask other members of the initiative, contacts in the community, and anyone else you know to help you identify specific people to contact wherever you can.

There are some people whose direct participation is crucial. But there are others who would be ideal as well, even though they may not be absolutely necessary to success. Remember the list above of people who can be helpful.

Recruit members for your task force or action committee

Use your list and your contacts to get in touch with people. Many may be people already involved with the initiative, but many may not. Where you have an individual listed as the best representative of a particular group or segment of the community, it might help to have second and third choices from that group as well. In addition, people who may not be able to become members themselves will have ideas about others who would be good additions to your task force. Don't hesitate to ask them for names.

The best method of recruiting people is always personally. An ideal is for the first contact to be from someone the person already knows, but a "cold call" - a personal visit or phone call made to someone you don't know - is still better than an e-mail or a letter.

Gather the group and define its purpose

The issue is already a given, but how are you going to approach it, and what are you going to do about it? Some task forces or action committees are convened to study an issue, others to affect it indirectly, still others to take immediate and direct action. Members need to decide what they're going to do. One model for achieving this assumes that the task force works together as a group to plan its course of action:

The model below assumes also that someone acts as facilitator to guide the group through the process. It is aimed at a group whose purpose is to address a community issue - youth violence, homelessness, etc. A task force or action committee that has a very specific purpose, such as drafting bylaws, won't need to go through this whole process.

• Define the problem or issue clearly.
• Envision the ideal solution - what do you want things to look like or be like when your work is done?
• Start with the solution and work backward. What things need to happen to get from where you are now to the solution you've envisioned?
• Map out benchmarks - achievements along the way - between where you are now and where you want to be.
• Brainstorm or otherwise determine ways to reach each benchmark from the one before, and to reach your final goal.
• Identify whether your plan means that other issues have to be addressed as well (not necessarily by this group), or whether other people must be included, and decide how to deal with those realities.
• Identify the resources you'll need to get to each benchmark, and decide - realistically - how much you can obtain. Adjust your actual goals accordingly.
• Draft a plan based on what you've come up with. It should include a timeline for when you expect to reach each benchmark, and when you expect to reach your final goal.

Always be aware that a plan like this is a guideline. Everything always takes longer than you expect or want it to. The purpose here is to give yourself and the initiative some idea of what you're doing and how long it might take. Not only your timeline, but your plan itself will change. If it's a good plan to begin with, its major elements may survive reality, but much will be different by the time you reach your goal. The flexibility to adjust to changes in circumstances and to things you didn't anticipate or know about should be part of any plan.

• Present your plan to the larger group. Even if you have the latitude to act independently, it will help to hear what others think. It will also help both you and the initiative as a whole if everyone knows what's happening, especially if you need help from other task forces or members of the initiative.

At this point, you've actually developed your task force or action committee, and set it on its way. Your work has hardly begun, however. There are still a number of steps before you're ready to hang up your task force hat for good. We'll discuss them briefly.

Implement your plan

Take action to reach your benchmarks and your ultimate goal.

Evaluate and adjust your plan and your actions

As mentioned in the box above, no plan is perfect. That is why it is important to evaluate plans, programs, and processes regularly. These evaluations give you a chance to see what's working well, what needs to be changed, and what assumptions are in error or outdated. Most important, evaluation makes it possible to adjust and improve what you're doing.

Celebrate successes along the way

Celebrate reaching benchmarks with parties or formal ceremonies. Give awards to task force members, community volunteers, and anyone else who deserves them. Advertise your successes to your colleagues, and use the media to tell the community about them.

Celebration keeps people going, and reminds them why they're putting in all that time. It creates way stations so that the road to success doesn't seem all that long. It makes people feel good about themselves and what they're doing, and reminds the community that you're there.

Find a way to institutionalize whatever is necessary to continue to address the issue

Task forces and action committees usually disband once they've accomplished their purposes. But public health and community issues have a habit of never being "resolved." As long as you keep working at addressing them, you can keep things flowing smoothly. But once you turn your back, there are those issues again, just waiting for you to leave so they can surface.

There are a some ways that a task force or action committee can make sure that its issues continue to be addressed:

• The task force's work may be spun off into a new program or agency

For example, the North Quabbin's Child Sexual Assault Task Force eventually spawned Valuing Our Children, an independent organization that conducts various programs for children and adolescents, offers parenting classes and other support services for parents, and runs family activities to encourage parents and their children to have fun together.

• The implementation of the task force's plans or goals may be taken over by an existing agency
• The initiative as a whole may assume oversight of the task force's work, and institutionalize it in the community

Reaching your goal is only the first part of your task force's job. Only when the strategies for maintaining that goal have become institutionalized is your job done.

In Summary

Your initiative may need to develop multisector task forces or action committees to focus in on specific community issues or particular needs of the initiative itself. A task force or action committee is a group intended to take action; multisector refers to the group's membership, which is drawn from all sectors of the community, or all sectors that are concerned with the issue at hand.

Multisector task forces or action committees help a larger initiative focus in on specific issues, and do something about them. They can be more efficient than the larger group, and can let people concentrate on the issues that interest them. The fact that their membership is drawn from many segments of the community gives their work and that of the initiative credibility among various groups, gives those groups ownership of their plans and actions, gains their support, and leaves them feeling that they've been justifiably involved in dealing with issues that are important to them.

Multisector task forces and action committees are particularly useful when issues reach crisis proportions, or are heading in that direction; when new information identifies a hitherto unrecognized problem in the community; when an outside entity precipitates a crisis through its actions; or when a group sees a particular issue it wants to tackle. Membership, besides bridging cultural, class, ethnic, and other community boundaries, usually should include representatives of all stakeholders to the issue, people with access to policy making, and others in the community who are interested in and can be helpful to the effort.

The process of developing a multisector task force or action committee should include:

• Defining the relationship of the task force and the larger initiative
• Choosing good leadership
• Listing potential members
• Recruiting members
• Convening the group and articulating its purpose

Once the groundwork is done, the work of the task force encompasses:

• Implementing the action plan
• Evaluating and adjusting the plan and the work
• Celebrating successes at every step
• Institutionalizing the work of the task force before it disbands

Only after the last step can the task force or action committee be considered finally successful.

What is a multisector task force or action committee?

___You know that a multisector task force or action committee is a subgroup of a larger initiative assembled from a cross-section of the initiative or community to address a specific problem or to accomplish a specific goal

Why would you form a multisector task force or action committee?

___Task forces or action committees can allow a larger group to zero in on the areas that need the most, or immediate, attention

___A task force or action committee can focus in on the specific issue, rather than being pulled in a number of directions, as the larger group may be

___In general, a small group can operate more efficiently than a large one to get things done

___Task forces and action committees give people a chance to concentrate on their major areas of interest, and to contribute more effectively to the work of the larger group

___Task forces and action committees can pull in members who may not be interested in the larger group to work on just the particular issue they are interested in

You make your group multisector because:

___Community action usually requires the support, and often the participation, of all stakeholders if it's to be successful

___Involvement of all stakeholders in planning and carrying out any action means that they'll take ownership of those plans and actions

___Involvement of many sectors of the community brings with it the information and insights that those different sectors have into the issue

___The perspectives of various sectors on community history and personalities can help the group to a real understanding of the issue

___Involving many sectors in the task force or action committee will generate community cooperation and support for the action taken

___Multisector participation benefits the larger initiative and the community as well, because it brings together individuals and groups who might not, under other circumstances, have much contact, or who might distrust one another

___It's simply fair and reasonable to involve people in decisions which affect their lives

You know the possible disadvantages of such groups:

___There may be enmity and distrust among segments of the community that are normally at odds, or who have little contact

___There may be deep-seated disagreement about how to handle the issue

___Different individuals or groups may have very different levels of commitment to the work of the task force or action committee

___There may be differences in levels of sophistication, education, and "group skills" among members of the group from different sectors of the community

When would you form a multisector task force or action committee?

___When the initiative as a whole identifies a specific issue, within its larger mission, that needs to be attended to

___When new information points out something in the community that can't be ignored

___When an existing task force or action committee realizes its work can't be completed without addressing another area related to its own focus

___When a difficult situation or critical action by an external entity makes attention to a particular issue suddenly more important

___When a group within a larger initiative sees an issue that it particularly wants to concentrate on

Who might be part of a multisector task force or action committee?

___You seek members who aren't part of the larger group that the task force or action committee is part of

___You look for stakeholders and other interested parties

___You look for people who can be helpful to the effort

How do you develop a multisector task force or action committee?

___You define the relationship of your task force or action committee to the larger group

___You find the right people to lead your task force or action committee

___You identify individuals or groups whose participation your task force can't do without

___You recruit members for your task force or action committee

___You gather the group and define its purpose

• Define the problem or issue clearly
• Envision the ideal solution - what do you want things to look like or be like when your work is done?
• Start with the solution and work backward
• Map out benchmarks - achievements along the way - between where you are now and where you want to get to
• Brainstorm or otherwise determine ways to reach each benchmark from the one before, and to reach your final goal
• Identify whether your plan means that other issues have to be addressed as well
• Identify the resources you'll need to get to each benchmark, and decide - realistically - how much you can obtain
• Draft a plan based on what you've come up with
• Present your plan to the larger group

___You implement your plan

___You evaluate and adjust your plan and your actions

___You celebrate successes along the way

___You find a way to institutionalize whatever is necessary to continue to address the issue

A PowerPoint presentation summarizing the major points in the section.

• What is a Board of Directors?

• Why do you need a Board of Directors?

• How does a Board actually work?

• How do you go about putting a Board together?

• How does the Board get started?

Now that you have an organization, you might decide that you need a Board of Directors. While many organizations choose to use other kinds of governing bodies (see the discussion about other types of Boards below) a Board can strengthen your organization in many ways: perform some of the tasks of the organization, support your work in the community, convince others that you know what you're doing, contribute particular skills and talents, advise the organization on legal or other matters, and help with fundraising, to mention a few. A Board is also usually necessary if you want to gain nonprofit status and get public funding.

At the same time, membership on a Board gives many people the opportunity to volunteer for a cause they believe in, and to use their skills or prominence in satisfying ways. So you have something to offer by asking people to serve on your Board, as well as something to gain.

This section will give you information about what a Board of Directors is, and about some different kinds of Boards. It will explore why many organizations can benefit from Boards, and what Boards actually do and how they work. Finally, it will offer advice on how to recruit Board members for different circumstances, and will bring you as far as the first Board meeting.

What is a Board of Directors?

A Board of Directors is the governing body of an organization. It decides on policy, and makes sure that the organization's policies are carried out.

For instance, a Board may decide that its organization won't accept money from funders whose practices it disagrees with. The Board may then monitor contributions to make sure that it's not taking money from those funders.

• The Board oversees the financial operation of the organization through its Treasurer. It is responsible for any mistakes, bad judgment, or illegal financial activity. If the organization's Accountant tries to cook the books, the Board should catch her!
• The Board hires, fires, and supervises the Director (if there is one), and oversees the operations of the organization. It usually doesn't interfere in day-to-day decisions, but it might work with the Director or ask them to do something specific to correct a problem or deal with an issue. It might also fire the Director if it thinks that they are doing a bad job, is doing something illegal, can't get along with the staff, or isn't supporting the goals of the organization.
• The Board makes sure that the mission and philosophy of the organization are maintained. This is one of the most important things a Board can do. It is the watchdog that keeps the organization moving forward toward its goals, and protects the ideals that moved you to do all this in the first place.
• The Board is legally responsible for all the actions of the organization. If the organization does anything illegal, owes money, or is sued, the Board is the responsible party.

Many organizations indemnify their Board members. This means that in most cases, the Board members cannot be sued or prosecuted as individuals for the actions of the organization. If the Board members knowingly commit or allow illegal acts, of course, all bets are off.

• In some cases, the Board may do some or all of the work of the organization. This might happen if:
  • There is no paid staff, or not enough money for adequate staff to do everything necessary to run the organization. Board members then become the (volunteer) staff of the organization, and do whatever needs to be done to accomplish the organization's goals.
  • The organization is a volunteer organization, where paid staff's job is to organize, and the Board and other volunteers actually carry out the mission.
  • The organization reserves some tasks specifically for the Board in order to keep Board members directly connected to its operations.

Other types of boards or governing bodies:

Not all Boards have as much power as those I've just described. Some may not actually be called Boards of Directors at all, but may be referred to as Steering Committees, Advisory Boards or Committees, or Core Groups. Not every group needs a Board of Directors. A short-term initiative, for instance, that expects to disband after a few months when a particular goal is accomplished, probably has no reason to form a Board, though it might need some sort of governing body--perhaps a Steering Committee to guide its actions. Other organizations may simply not want a traditional Board of Directors, but may want to try another model.

A Steering Committee may be appointed or elected, but is often open to any member of the organization who is interested in helping it to run. It usually makes recommendations about a particular action or about the direction in which the organization should go, rather than setting policy. If the Steering Committee oversteps these bounds, the organization may dissolve it, or otherwise limit its authority. Coalitions, which may be organizations made up of several other organizations, often have Steering Committees.

An Advisory Committee is just that, a group that advises the organization. It may do many of the same things as a Board of Directors, but it doesn't set policy or oversee the Director, operation, or finances.

An advisory committee for a program in a school system was made up of parents, teachers, and administrators. Its job was to work with teachers to come up with ideas for the program, to represent the community in the discussion of those ideas, and to help find the community resources to help the program run. It had no real control over the program, but it was listened to, although not 100% of the time. That's how most advisory committees work.

Another possibility is creating a Board of Directors that reflects the philosophy and structure of a collaborative program or initiative. Rather than remaining separate from staff and members, this kind of Board might...

• Share Board work with them
• Participate with them in deciding on policy, rather than being in charge of it
• Share power with them
• Include, or be largely made up of, those whom the organization serves

This type of Board would be most likely in an organization that operates as a collective or collaborative, or in which staff empowerment is extremely important.

Why do you need a Board of Directors?

Funding, traditional structure and nonprofit status

One of the most important reasons to develop a Board is that most funders want to deal with organizations that have traditional structures. They simply won't give money to an organization without a Board. By the same token, many funders--especially local, state, or federal government bodies--won't even talk to an organization without nonprofit status. And you generally can't get nonprofit status without a Board of Directors.

Nonprofit status is granted by both the state and federal governments. Being a non-profit organization means, among other things, that you don't have to pay taxes on the organization's income (although you do have to pay payroll taxes for regular employees.)

Although the organization can take in more money than it spends, no one can take that

money home as profit. It has to go back into the organization in some way.

Nonprofit status also means that your organization can't lobby more than a certain amount, and that it can't support a particular political candidate or party. And if too much income goes for salaries or bonuses--if the organization's Director makes $250,000 a year, say--the government tends to get suspicious.

Gaining connections with the community

A carefully chosen Board can give an organization visibility and connections in the community, and can marshal community resources and support for the activities of the organization. If it's made up of people from all parts of the community--different income groups, ages, parts of town, jobs, races, etc.--the Board can also help the organization understand what the community really wants and needs. When a lot of people in the community know someone connected with an organization, they're much more likely to think well of it, and give it their support.

Building organizational credibility

Often the hardest thing for a grassroots organization to do is to convince the community that it is a legitimate group that knows what it's doing. Having a Board that includes respected members of the community--whether because of their jobs or community standing (bankers, city councilors, clergy, etc.) or simply because of their personal qualities--can go a long way toward gaining respect for an organization.

A community coalition had as a founding member a veteran who had been shot down as a fighter pilot in Vietnam. When he got home, the whole town watched for agonizing months as he learned, through obvious pain, to walk and function despite severe disabling injuries that were supposed to confine him to a wheelchair for life. He was an ordinary guy without wealth or position, but he had credibility in that town. His membership extended that credibility to the coalition.

Attracting good people to your organization and your cause

While people may not always be willing simply to volunteer for an organization, they often can be persuaded to serve on a Board, because being asked is a mark of respect. Being invited to join a Board is flattering, and indicates that someone thinks your opinion is important. It's harder to resist volunteering in that situation, and an organization may be able to attract terrific Board members who might not otherwise be willing to work with it.

Using board members' talents and skills

Does your organization need legal advice? Accounting? Someone who'll always be honest about what the community is likely to think about an idea? People who know health issues? Education? Community organization? Your Board can be a source of all of these and more. Many professionals serve on Boards particularly to provide their services to an organization they believe in. Local people may have a better perspective on what will fly in the community than program staff, who might live elsewhere. A Board is a collection of talents, knowledge, and skills that an organization can draw on.

Maintaining organizational balance

Sometimes a particular individual or small group can dominate the workings of an organization. Even if they are generally intelligent, well-meaning, and right most of the time (perhaps especially if they are), people who dominate can poison a program. If the staff and the community feel that their ideas are ignored, then achieving your goals may be a casualty. A Board can help, through its supervision of the Director and oversight of the program, to assure that some balance is maintained. It's a bit like the federal government, where the President, Congress, and the courts all control and are controlled by one another.

A word of warning: There are many horror stories about organizations where the Board struggles with the Director for control. Most of these stories are true: unfortunately, it's all too common. It's tremendously important that the roles of the Board and the Director are clearly defined, so that everyone knows who's in charge of what. It's also tremendously important that the Board President and the Director both understand the possibility of conflict, and try to make sure that they're working together instead of against each other. Directors of organizations are usually strong people, and good Boards are also made up of strong people. If they're all working together, the organization can be tremendously strong. If they're fighting over who gets to call the shots, you might as well pack up your cleats and go home, because there's not going to be any game until everyone's playing by the same rules.

Safeguarding the mission

Staff members, and even Directors, come and go. They don't always completely understand the mission and philosophy of the organization when they come; it takes them a while to learn; and then they take that knowledge with them when they go. The Board can act as an institutional memory to make sure that the mission and goals of the organization are not neglected, and continue to be pursued. It can be the link, through its records and the longevity of some of its members, to those who founded the organization and to its original purpose.

How does a Board actually work?

The procedures of the Board are usually covered in a set of by-laws, which are the rules governing the workings of the Board and the organization. By-laws are usually written by a Board committee and revised from time to time as the needs of the organization change, or some by-laws prove unworkable.

Meetings

First of all, a Board of Directors meets on a regular schedule, usually not more often than once a month, or less often than two or three times a year.

Board meetings can often be long, and sometimes really dull. One way to make them more interesting--and to make the whole experience more pleasant for Board members and anyone else who attends--is to meet in places where everyone can be comfortable. This means comfortable furniture, comfortable surroundings...in other words, not someplace institutional. Meeting at members' homes works for some Boards. One organization's Director hosted Board meetings and cooked dinner for everyone each month. While that seems above and beyond the call of duty, having food at meetings changes the way people relate to one another, and can make it much easier for the Board members to get along and work well together. Food is comforting and comfortable in itself. If you can't have the meeting in a really comfortable place, at least make sure you feed 'em.

Officers

Boards generally elect officers to run the Board and its meetings. Usually there are four positions:

• A President or Chair who runs Board meetings; works closely with the Director to help the organization run smoothly and accomplish its purpose; and deals with issues, problems, or policy concerns on the Board, often with help from other officers or Board members.
• A Vice-President or Vice Chair (or more than one) who acts as backup for the President, and may have specific areas of their own to oversee as well. In many community-based organizations, it is understood that the Vice-President will be the next President.
• A Secretary or Clerk who takes minutes at Board meetings, keeps records and files of the activity of the Board, sends out minutes and agendas for the next meeting, and is in charge of communication both with Board members and with outsiders who communicate with the Board. The Secretary is also responsible for making sure that every action of the Board is documented properly. If a question arises about a particular vote, for example, the Secretary should have a record of the exact wording of what was voted on, the date on which the vote took place, and the number of people in favor and against. Things like this can be important in legal issues, or in resolving conflict.
• A Treasurer who is legally responsible for the finances of the organization. This person is often a lawyer, an accountant, or a banker, and works closely with the staff member who handles the organization's finances. In small organizations, the Treasurer may be that person.

These four officers, sometimes joined by Committee Chairs or other Board members, often make up an Executive Committee which plans meetings, handles matters that come up between meetings, and guides the work of the Board.

Committees

Most Boards form committees to accomplish both the regular work of the Board and other specific tasks, and appoint Board members as chairpersons and members of particular committees.

Generally, people will volunteer for committees they want to be on. Sometimes, however, this ends up with some committees being really large and others being really small. One way to deal with this is to limit the size of committees and make membership first-come-first-served. Another is to try to match members with particular committees according to their skills and personalities, and then to ask them personally to serve on the appropriate committee. Still others are to establish limited terms for committee members, so they know that they won't be on a committee forever if they don't want to; to regard every committee as a time-limited operation that will dissolve as soon as its very specific goals are met; or to assign people to committees by lot, or by appointment by the Chair. Most committees will end up with about the right number, but every Board seems to have at least one committee that no one wants to be on. It's an ongoing struggle.

There are two basic kinds of committees:

1. Standing Committees are ongoing and oversee the regular operations of the organization.

Some common examples:

• A Finance Committee which keeps track of the money situation of the organization, and is often chaired by the Treasurer.
• An Executive Committee, usually made up of officers and committee chairs, which sets agendas for Board meetings and acts for the organization when the full Board isn't available. It's generally chaired by the President.
• A Fundraising Committee which coordinates events, mailings, appeals, etc., aimed at raising money for the organization.
• Public Relations, Political Action, Community Health, or Public Policy are other possible examples of standing committees, depending upon the purpose of the organization. Each Board decides what its standing committees will be.

2. Ad Hoc (Latin for, roughly, "to this purpose") Committees are formed to accomplish a specific task, and then disbanded when the job is done. A good example would be a committee to run a particular fund-raising event, like a carnival. When the event is over, the committee might make a final report, and then go out of existence.

Board Tasks

In addition to serving as officers or on committees, Board members usually help to plan, organize, and attend organization events; represent the organization in the community; and/or sit on other Boards or committees as representatives of the organization.

How do you go about putting a board together?

So you've decided to have a Board. Now what? Obviously, you need to find some people to serve on it. But you don't want just anybody. How do you decide who you want, and then how do you recruit them and get them to agree to be members of your Board?

It's important to think first about what kind of Board you want, and then try to find people who will do well on that kind of Board. Many great people may not be the best members for your type of Board, or may find that they don't want to serve on that type of Board. You have to be clear about what you want, and then work to find a good match.

What kind of board do you want?

Boards may have several different purposes. Some are of one particular type, but many--perhaps most--are a combination of two or more types.

Working Board

A Working Board helps with the actual functioning of the organization, usually through the efforts of its committees. Members of a working Board should be willing

• To attend Board meetings regularly
• To join committees, attend committee meetings, and do their share of the work of those committees
• To offer opinions, advice, etc., and participate in the running of the Board

Board for Credibility

A Board which exists largely for credibility helps to show people in the community that the organization is legitimate and knows what it's doing. Board members are chosen more for who they are than for their skills or their willingness to work.

Members of this kind of Board should be:

• People who are well known and respected in the community as a whole or in specific parts of the community. These are often people with social connections or respected positions (doctors, bankers, hospital administrators, town officers, clergy, etc.), or simply people whom others in the community look up to. (Remember the wounded veteran who was a founding member of the coalition.)
• Willing to have their names used in connection with the organization--on stationery, for instance.
• Willing to attend specific organizational events or other public functions on behalf of the organization when asked.
• Willing to speak to the press or perform other public relations duties as representatives of the organization.

It may not matter if some members don't attend Board meetings on a regular basis, if they lend their names to the organization.

Board with relevant experience

A Board may be assembled to take advantage of the direct benefits to the organization of members' talents or training.

• An accountant might act as Treasurer and help with the books and finances
• A lawyer might serve as the organization's attorney and legal consultant--for free
• A reporter or radio personality might help with public relations
• People with specialized knowledge that relates to the organization's mission can make the organization much more effective (health professionals for a public health initiative, for instance)
• People who are the beneficiaries of the organization's mission can often help identify the best ways to achieve goals

Fundraising Board

A Fundraising Board exists to bring money into the organization, through both members' own contributions and their fundraising efforts in the community.

• Some members should have connections to wealthy people in the community or other sources of funds, and should be willing to use those connections for the benefit of the organization
• It will help if some members are themselves wealthy; they should expect to make large contributions to the organization. These Board members lead by example.
• Members should be willing to make public presentations on behalf of the organization, and to participate in other public relations efforts that lead to funding
• Members should be willing to participate in fundraising events and campaigns
• Members should be willing to ask their friends and acquaintances for contributions

Boad to safeguard the organization's mission

A Board's job may be to safeguard the mission and philosophy of the organization.

In this situation, the most important qualification for Board members is that they clearly understand and support the mission and philosophy of the organization. Other qualifications are simply less important.

Understanding and supporting the mission and philosophy is perhaps the most important single qualification for all Board members, regardless of why you want them. No matter how important some people may seem to you, if they don't truly grasp and champion your mission, they won't last long on the Board, and their experience could leave them with a bad impression they might spread to the community. Be honest about what you stand for, and make sure potential Board members understand what they're getting into, perhaps to the point of giving every potential Board member a written statement of the philosophy and goals of the organization. Some will get away, but the ones you catch will be far more valuable.

What do you expect your Board's relationship to the organization to be?

Once you've decided on the kind of Board you're aiming for, you need to look at its relationship to everyone else in the organization. Will it be a governing body, like a traditional Board? Will it be an advisory Board? Will it be a democratic collaboration with staff and others? The answers to these questions are important, because Board members will have to be willing to act and function in particular ways in each case. Do potential members have set ideas about what a Board does that differ from the way the organization works? Can they see the Board as anything other than "the Boss?" (This is only an issue if the Board is not meant to be the Boss.) Do they understand that the advice of an advisory Board is not always followed? You need to know how people feel about these issues before you invite them to serve on your Board.

How big do you want your Board to be?

The ideal size of your Board will depend on what kind of work it's going to do. If your Board members aren't expected to make all the meetings or spend a lot of time serving on committees, then size may not be a concern. A Board whose purpose is community credibility might be more effective if it is large (20 or more), so that you'll have lots of people to call on as representatives of the organization. If the skills and talents of the members are the issue, then the size of the Board could be determined by what skills you particularly need.

If you have a working Board, there are two approaches you can take:

• Keep it small (15 or fewer), with everyone willing to put in a set amount of work, and then limit the work you take on to what members can accomplish in the time they have
• Make it large (20 or more), especially if there are lots of committees, so that there are plenty of people to share the work, and no one gets burned out

In general, you're probably better off with a relatively small group that's willing to work hard--particularly if the organization is small--rather than trying to coordinate a larger group and motivate everyone to contribute. A large group can work well, but you need strong committee chairs who are willing to reach out to members, and all must be very clear from the beginning that they are expected to put in a certain amount of work if they're on the Board.

Some really important points:

Whatever the size and purpose of your Board, the most important things to think about are:

• Try to match Board members to the jobs you want them to do. Make sure they know what those jobs are before they join, that they want to do those jobs, and that they have the time and ability to do them.
• Try to match Board members to one another. This doesn't mean that they should all be the same--the more diversity of all kinds on the Board, the better. But it does mean that they need to be tolerant of others' opinions, styles, and differences, that they are able to get along with people in general, that they are willing to work at communication, and that they are willing to participate in a group to accomplish a common purpose.
• Make certain that Board members buy into the basic principles of the organization: the mission, the philosophy behind it, and anything else that's important.
• Be as absolutely straightforward as you can about everything: the amount of work, the real philosophy of the organization--the stuff that's behind what you say in public, and what you're asking people to do. It's far better for someone to respect your honesty and choose not to be on the Board, rather than to accept, and feel later that they have been deceived.

How do you find people who match your vision for the board and get them to join?

Where to look:

To find Board members, it's best to start with people you know and work outward. People who are not interested in being Board members may be happy to give you names of others who might be interested.

Some groups to start with:

• Current friends, acquaintances, and supporters of the organization
• High-profile people (legislators, media people, celebrities, etc.) who have commented publicly and positively about the organization's issue
• People who have a vested interest in the issue (teachers for a literacy initiative, for example)
• Members or staff of organizations which are natural allies (hospitals, AIDS education groups, or mental health centers for a health initiative)
• People who may benefit if the organization achieves its goals (individuals experiencing homelessness or housing instability for an affordable housing program)

Talking to potential Board members:

Coming up with a list of names is only the first step. Now you have to find out if they're the right people for your Board, and they have to decide whether your Board is right for them. The first conversation with a Board candidate is a lot like a first date: each of you is trying to decide whether this relationship has any potential, and whether you want to see the other person again.

Some guidelines for a first conversation:

• Tell them why you're considering them for the Board, and what role you hope they'll play. Try to make them feel (as they should) that they're highly valued.
• Tell them as much as they can digest about the organization, so they have a clear idea of what they're getting into. Be as honest as possible; describe weaknesses as well as strengths. For some people, helping to correct weaknesses is a strong reason to join a Board.
• Find out what the candidates want out of the relationship, as well as telling them what you want. What do they think they can contribute? What would make them feel useful?
• Answer all their questions completely.
• Try to get answers to your questions about their fit with the Board, their willingness to work with a diverse group, etc.
• Be sure to find out about their availability. Do they have enough time to be Board members? When can they meet, and when can't they?

Issues to consider in choosing Board members:

• Do you want all Board members to agree? You lose a lot if everyone thinks alike, but if they don't, the Board has to be able to handle differences of opinion without falling apart.
• Are you willing to risk having two or more people on the Board who may be individually valuable, but don't get along with each other?
• How will you handle differences in class and education? What kind of support and training will you provide for those who don't have a lot of experience working in groups, let alone serving on Boards? How will you make sure that they feel comfortable presenting their opinions, and that their voices will be heard when they do?
• How will you tell someone that they're not right for the Board?

A mechanism for choosing Board members:

A common method of selecting potential and actual Board members is to appoint a Nominating Committee. This committee is charged with finding and interviewing people in the community who would be good Board members for the organization. Usually, the Nominating Committee reports back to the full Board about the interviews, and may recommend a list of people for acceptance. The Board then votes to accept or reject interested candidates, or may choose to meet some or all of them before making a decision. The Nominating Committee generally also has the task of informing those candidates who have been rejected.

One way to reject people gently but honestly is to focus on whether they'd be happy on the Board. If you can truthfully say that you think they wouldn't--especially if you can give a non-threatening reason (I don't think you'd be able to support a lot of our positions), then it's easier for both you and them. Talking about their fit with the ideals, the purpose, the work of the Board is also a way to approach this issue without attacking people as human beings.

Someone who has been rejected as a Board member may be able to help the organization in other ways. A Nominating Committee or other recruiter should always look for a place where such a person can fit in, and feel valuable to the organization.

Board members may also be elected from among the membership of the organization, or proposed by current Board members. On some Boards, a member who is leaving is expected to find their replacement. In almost every case but general election, however, the Board still approves or rejects candidates for membership.

How does the board get started?

Once the Board has been chosen, it has to meet and get organized. It doesn't yet have by-laws or officers, so someone--probably you--is going to have to do some organizing to get everyone in the same place at the same time.

It is usually helpful if the first meeting is on neutral ground: the organization's office, if it has one, or a room in a public building (libraries often provide space for meetings, for instance). As mentioned above, food and drink can make things more comfortable.

It is customary to ask a Board member to chair the first meeting until a President or Chair is chosen, and another to take minutes. This temporary Chair can, with you and perhaps one or two other Board members, draft an agenda for the first meeting.

The agenda should include:

• Introductions all around
• A report from the Director, if there is one, about the state of the organization
• Discussion of Board structure, including officers and standing committees
• Discussion of the organization's goals, and of the tasks necessary to meet those goals
• Preliminary discussion of other committees needed to address those tasks
• The election of officers, particularly a permanent Chair or President
• The appointment, at least temporarily, of committee chairs
• Assignment of members to committees

Election of officers, appointment of committee chairs, and assignment to committees could wait until the second meeting, when Board members have more knowledge of one another. If it is put off, however, the first meeting should include setting of part of the agenda for the next meeting, with election of officers, appointment of committee chairs, and assignment of members to committees at the top of the list. Board members interested in offices or particular committees should have an opportunity during or directly after the first meeting to make their preferences known.

• A Board meeting schedule
• Anything else of importance to the organization

Board members should leave the meeting feeling that the Board has a clear structure, and that they got a lot done. If members can leave the first meeting with a sense of accomplishment and purpose, the Board will be off to a great start.

In Summary

You've just gotten a quick look at how--and why--to put together a Board of Directors. A well-functioning Board can be a tremendous asset to an organization. On a practical level, it provides the necessary structure for outside funding and nonprofit status. On an operational level, it helps to support the Director, staff, and/or volunteers in difficult circumstances, and assists with the running of the organization and with fundraising.

In that role, a Board can ground an organization in the real world: "We can't afford to do that right now," are words that Directors hate to hear, but they have saved many programs from disaster.

A good Board helps lend credibility and legitimacy to the organization in the eyes of the community. And perhaps most important, a Board is itself part of the community, and thus connects its organization to the community as well. Without that connection, what is a community-based organization, after all?

___You have decided that a Board of Directors can strengthen your organization in one or more of the following ways:

• Perform tasks of the organization
• Support
• Convince others
• Contribute skills
• Advise
• Help with fundraising

___You are aware of the fact that it is usually necessary to have a Board in order to receive nonprofit status or public funding

___You have decided on the type of Board that is best for your organization:

• Traditional
• Steering committee
• Advisory committee
• Board of Directors that reflects the philosophy and structure of a collaborative program

___You have decided on the reasons why your organization needs a Board of Directors:

• Funding, traditional structure, and nonprofit status
• Gaining connections with the community
• Building organizational credibility
• Attracting good people to your organization and your cause
• Using board members' talents and skills
• Maintaining organizational balance
• Safeguarding the mission

___You have decided that you need a Board of Directors

___You have decided on the purpose of the Board you want:

• A working Board that helps with the actual functioning of the organization
• A Board that exists largely for credibility
• A Board that takes advantage of the direct benefits to the organization of members' talents or training
• A fundraising Board to bring money into the organization
• A Board to safeguard the mission and philosophy of the organization

___The Board's relationship to the organization has been determined

___You have decided on the appropriate size of your Board of Directors

___The Board members have been matched to the jobs you want them to do and to the other members of the Board

___The Board members buy into the basic principles of the organization

___The actual Board members have been selected

___The initial meeting has been held on neutral ground

___Introductions have been made

___You have given a report of the state of the organization

___There is a discussion of the organization's goals and of the tasks necessary to meet those goals

___There has been a preliminary discussion of the other committees needed

___The officers have been elected:

• President or Chair
• Vice-President or Vice Chair
• Secretary or Clerk
• Treasurer

___Committee chairs have been appointed if only temporarily

___Members have been assigned to committees

___A Board meeting schedule has been determined

A PowerPoint presentation summarizing the major points in the section.

• Why is it important to welcome and train new Board members?

• When should you welcome and train new Board members?

• How do you welcome and train an effective Board of Directors?

• Special topic #1: Ongoing training of Board members

• Special topic #2: Board members who need extra help

Nonprofit Boards are anything but static. New members join, old ones leave; even older ones return. People change ideas and views as they learn, talk, and grow more experienced. An effective Board is a dynamic, fluid group that brings new ideas to further a cause that they are passionate about.

Of course, all of this isn't always a smooth trip. And one of the bumps in the road can be working with new members. Having new members -- fresh blood -- is critical to the ongoing success of most Boards. But without the proper training, these members can be frustrated and ineffective -- they may even choose to leave -- making your Board as a whole much less than it could or should have been.

With the proper training, however, new Board members are sometimes the factors that make an average Board good, and make a good Board exceptional. Our goal in this section is to help you do that, and to change that "bump in the road" to a launch pad from which your organization will soar.

Are you ready to fly?

Why is it important to welcome and train new Board members?

A lot of this is probably intuitive. But let's recap, to ensure it's at the forefront of our thinking as we begin.

A proper welcome and training will help new members:

• Take on their roles in the organization both quickly and comfortably
• Feel more connected to one another
• Feel more connected to the organization
• Better understand their role on the Board -- why they were asked to join, and what is expected of them as members
• Operate from the same "script" -- that is, to understand the vision, mission, and their roles in the organization in the same way
• Feel more motivated to do a better job

When should you welcome and train new Board members?

It depends on your organization, how often you meet, and how often new members join the Board. Many Boards find that holding an official orientation session once a year, either before a regular meeting or during the organization's annual retreat, makes most sense. If your group has a certain time of year in which it recruits new members, it makes sense to hold this meeting immediately after new members have been recruited.

Recruitment can also take place both more casually and more often than the way we are focusing on in this section. For example, in some cases "orientation" might be a dinner or meeting with just the Board President and a welcome as a brief agenda item during a regular meeting; and/or orientation might take place informally with a mentor for the new member.

This more casual approach makes most sense when:

• The organization is local and/or very small
• The new Board member already knows most of the existing Board members
• The new member is already very familiar with the organization's work

For that type of Board member, there's almost never a bad time to welcome them to the Board family -- this informal orientation can occur as needed with very little fanfare.

For example, a small, all-volunteer crisis-counseling center in the Midwest routinely asks two of its volunteer counselors to sit on its Board. Since the Board and volunteers routinely celebrate holidays and accomplishments together at parties organized by the center's director, the volunteers have generally already met the other Board members in a laid back circumstance, and they are clearly familiar with the organization's mission and work. In this case, a full-blown orientation session is probably not necessary.

If training Board members for your organization happens in a similar set of circumstances, you might want to "pick and choose" from among the more detailed ideas presented in this section for a less formal orientation and training session for your Board members. It's also true that all of the information is given in a framework of a single session. In reality, much of what follows can and often does occur in a much less formal atmosphere. Again, we suggest that you use these ideas as a framework, and use ideas as they make sense to you.

How do you welcome and train an effective Board of Directors?

There are three major steps in setting up such a session: advance preparation, the welcoming and training session itself, and follow-up. Let's look at these ideas one by one.

Before the welcoming and training session:

Decide who should attend

Will it be mainly new members, or will you include the entire Board? Especially if the session coincides with a retreat, this might be a good time for all Board members to refresh their ideas of what the Board is and what it will do.) Also, decide if paid staff will be present. If new members haven't yet met staff members, and it's logistically possible, it's probably a good idea. If not, be sure to find a different time for the new member(s) to meet staff and at least some of the organization's volunteers.

Decide who will facilitate the meeting

This might be a "no-brainer ;" very often the facilitator role falls to the Board chair and/or the chief executive. However, there are other possibilities as well. One is to bring in someone from the outside - an organizational developer or other consultant. You wouldn't necessarily want to do this every time, but it might be useful if you have a slew of new Board members coming on at one time. Another possibility is to have one or more staff members run an orientation. This idea often works out really well. If you're a participant-centered organization, it may make sense to have a participant or group of participants facilitate at least part of the meeting.

Send out information for attendees to look over before the meeting

All attendees should receive:

• Notice of the meeting, along with all of the relevant logistical information (when, where, hotels to stay at if the meeting isn't local for everyone, and so on). If a) the meeting is particularly important (e.g., an annual retreat), or b) your Board meets rarely (e.g., quarterly), this information should be received at least a month before the upcoming meeting or retreat.
• A reminder, often in the form of a postcard, to arrive a week before the meeting.
• A proposed agenda for the upcoming meeting.
• A list or notice of anything you want members to bring to the meeting. (For example, "Be sure to bring your Board manual, as we'll be reviewing it and passing out supplements!")
• A tentative list of whom will be at the meeting, with an explanation of who they are. (For example, "Toumani Chiabete is a social worker at Shawnee County Mental Health Center and is one of our new Board members... Theresa Welsko has been our exceptionally capable administrative assistant for the past seven years... Melissa is one of our clients, who has served on our Board for the past year and a half.).
• Contact information, such as addresses/phone/e-mail contact for all Board members.

New members should receive:

A lot of information, (well before the meeting so they will have time to read it), including:

• A Board manual, if one exists (see Examples for topics it might include )
• Minutes of previous meetings
• Articles, both negative and positive, that have been written about the organization
• Materials developed about the organization and its programs (brochures, press kits)

Can you overwhelm a new Board member with material?

Possibly. But generally speaking, it's far better to give a Board member (new or old) too much information, rather than not enough. It's critical that Board members are well informed about what's going on with the organization, the issue the organization stands for, and the nonprofit sector as a whole. So go ahead, send out that information. At worst they won't read all of it; at best, Board members may be far more informed than you had even hoped for!

The welcoming and training session itself:

Give everyone name tags and make sure everyone has a chance to meet everyone else

If it is simply a regular meeting time (as opposed, say, to a two-day retreat), you might consider a "social hour" either before or after the meeting itself to let people have a chance to get to know one another. This doesn't have to be formal -- you might offer to buy the first round if folks want to join you for drinks after the meeting.

If people haven't met, they should be introduced -- and if you can swing it, you might want to let them know something they have in common to help break the ice. ("Christen, let me introduce you to Thurman -- he's the only person I've ever met who likes soccer more than you do."

Remember: One of the major reasons people join Boards is to meet other people. The easier and more enjoyable you can make that, the happier (and more effective) your Board is likely to be.

Explain (or review) major topics which concern the Board

This might include:

• The Board Manual
• The mission, vision and values of the organization
• An overview of the organization's history
• Roles and responsibilities of the Board and the staff, including time expected or normal time commitments
• An administrative calendar which schedules important Board activities
• An organizational chart, including the list of current and planned committees
• Information about how the Board conducts its meetings -- what kinds of rules do you use to make sure that things get done?

How formal is your Board?

A great many Boards use Robert's Rules of Order to keep the meeting running smoothly and efficiently; if yours doesn't and is frustrated with its meeting process, you might consider trying it out. It really depends on how formal your Board is and how into procedure you want to get. Robert's Rules are logical, and they aren't a bad set of guidelines for running a meeting; but they're also very detailed and nitpicky. For example, anyone who wants to be obstructionist can have a field day if they know the ins and outs of the rules. Obviously, you're not going to intentionally appoint contrarians to your Board, but they do turn up anyway.

In addition, running a Board by Robert's Rules can be really intimidating to those who aren't familiar with them and with procedure in general, such as program participants who have become Board members.

Especially in a grass roots, inclusive organization, you may be better off either using a modified version of Robert's Rules, or creating your own guidelines or group norms. You'll certainly want to have motions recorded accurately in the minutes, for instance, and want the chair to have the capacity to keep the meeting under control while still allowing for free discussion and giving everyone a chance to be heard. But the bottom line is, if you don't want to use Robert's Rules, make sure you find or develop a set of rules that do work for you.

Ensure adequate time for questions and answers

Also make sure that new members know who they should contact with questions and concerns on different topics in the future.

One idea that is used by many organizations is pairing new Board members with a "buddy," -- a current Board member who is willing to help orient the new member, and answer questions that they may have.

Make sure to involve new members immediately

Don't let them go home without any homework! Instead, involve them in relevant committees or on projects that interest them at the first meeting. As with almost anything in life, strike while the iron is hot, and get people involved while energy is high. Becoming immediately immersed in the group's work will also solidify members' ideas of what the organization is all about.

After the welcoming and training session:

Send out minutes that detail what was said

Make sure to emphasize any what agreements that were made or actions that will come out of the meeting. (For example, "Alpa has agreed to contact the different banks in our area and ask for their financial support for our upcoming fundraiser.") Make sure that these minutes are sent out promptly -- within a week of the meeting. Minutes from a meeting three months ago have lost much of their power to prompt people to follow up on their commitments.

Send out an evaluation form for all Board members

Ask for their opinions of how they thought the orientation and training session went. Again, this should go out promptly (possibly with the minutes). You might also consider giving it to members at the end of the session. Giving it to them at the meeting can be advantageous because ideas and thoughts are still going to be fresh in their minds. What's more, you're sure to get a better return rate! On the other hand, having them mail them to you allows people to send you ideas once they have had a chance to reflect on what happened at the meeting. Both ideas hold merit; it's up to you to decide what is best for your organization.

For new members, follow up with a phone call to see how things went and what questions remain

The person who calls can also make sure that the meeting schedule of the committee(s) they signed up for will work for them, that they feel comfortable with what they've committed to do, and can fill them in more on the details of the specific work they've volunteered for.

Special topic#1: Ongoing training of Board members

Of course, once you finish the original training session, your work has really just begun. Board training can (and should!) continue as long as your Board is functioning. Not only does this help your Board become stronger, it also provides a chance for Board members to continue their education.

There are several ways to approach continuous Board training. One is to schedule regular training sessions several times a year - maybe 3 or 4. What kind of training will go on at those sessions might depend on what the issues are that year, or on who's available at the scheduled times to do a workshop, presentation, etc. Thus, everyone on the Board knows when trainings are going to be, and can schedule around them accordingly.

Another way to do it is as needed. A problem comes up, Board members say "we need help here,"and you arrange, or go look for someone to provide, training on the issue at hand.

A third possibility is to organize trainings around predetermined topics each year (Board responsibilities, tax-exempt issues, conflict of interest, etc.), keeping them broad enough that they don't repeat, but making sure everyone in the organization gets enough information and insight to understand the issues and react appropriately when they come up.

Finally, trainings don't always need to happen in the flesh -- a lot of smaller things your organization does can contribute to ongoing learning. For example:

• A special newsletter can be developed for the Board
• Board members can receive copies of the organization's general newsletter
• Generic tip sheets on Board development can be sent to all members for review
• Develop a listserv or an interactive website exclusively for Board members

These ideas are certainly easier to carry out (in many ways) than live Board trainings, and might have their place in your organization.

For trainings done together, one key point is to attract the largest number of Board members to trainings. One possibility is to include a brief training - perhaps half an hour - at each Board meeting, so that it is seen as a regular part of the business of the Board.

Another issue is how to conduct trainings. They definitely don't all have to be the same. You can bring in people to conduct some of the training, and you might do others internally, depending upon the resources and expertise available, and the form you want sessions to take.

For example, training sessions can be self-generated and -conducted, using discussion and peer supervision to address issues. They can also conducted by program participants or staff members, depending on the topic. An accountant on the Board could do a training on tax issues, a lawyer on legal responsibility, a doctor on health issues, etc.

Some possibilities for training topics:

• Board responsibilities and legal issues (liability, conflict of interest, etc.)
• More on legal issues (indemnification, tax issues, lawsuits)
• Discussion of the organization's vision, mission, philosophy, etc. - where they came from, what's the foundation (theoretical, political, or otherwise), etc.
• The actual work of the organization - program or other activities: what do people actually do every day, in their interactions with priority population and others?
• The Board's relationship to the organization
• How Boards work
• How to be a productive Board member
• Financial issues - how the organization's finances work, where the money comes from, current status, etc.
• How to argue productively in meetings
• Interpersonal relations/conflict resolution
• Problem solving
• Strategic planning - why you'd want to and how to do it
• Needs, concerns, demographics, etc. of the priority population
• Fundraising
• PR
• Relations with the community
• Relations with staff
• Staff compensation and benefits
• Program evaluation

Special topic # 2: Board members who need extra help

Sometimes, you will have new Board members who may need more than a simple orientation. This is especially true if your organization asks participants or other people with less formal education to be Board members.

From the former director of a Massachusetts-based literacy organization:

The Literacy Project Board always included students, and they always had trouble figuring out what they were doing there, how the Board worked, what was expected of them, etc. Most of them had not only never been on a Board before, they had never been part of a deliberative body of any kind before - no committee, no PTA...nothing. The result was they had no idea what was going on, and were often too diffident to say so. They would nod their heads, speak when spoken to, and generally feel lost and stupid. They also often felt caught between two worlds because of their position. Most students saw the Board as part of another world: it was the body that ran the organization, and was made up of "important" people (actually most of them were human service types and teachers, but one person's "important..."). Thus a student on the Board took on an aura that she didn't necessarily want.

The point is that all of this needs to be addressed if you have participants or other people with lower incomes or less formal education on the Board, and it isn't easy. Even after we figured out what was going on and tried to deal with it, we found it really hard to devise orientation and training that spoke to the problem in a way that students could respond to. We were still trying when I left, although we had made some progress.

It's important that your organization thinks about these issues if you have similar people coming onto the Board. Other, similar issues may come up if new members join who:

• Don't speak English as their first language
• Are the first or only woman/person from an underrepresented group/young person on the Board
• Are simply very shy by nature

Certainly, there are no easy answers to questions like these. However, it's important that these issues aren't ignored, and that they don't come as a complete surprise to organizations that are trying to be inclusive.

In Summary

We've described what represents a fairly formal look at Board training. Many Boards, certainly, are much less structured and conventional than we've talked about here. So when you're developing your game plan for training, make sure it's just as loose, informal, and light-hearted as your organization. A well-defined, well-run training will go miles in making your Board's work outstanding -- but leavening it with a few laughs will help to make the Board itself a wonderful creation to be a part of.

Before the welcoming and training session:

___You have decided who should attend

___You have decided who will facilitate the meeting

___You have sent out information for attendees to look over before the meeting

You have made sure new members will receive:

___A Board manual

___Minutes of previous meetings

___Articles

___Materials developed about the organization and its programs

The welcoming and training session itself:

___You have given everyone nametags

___You made sure everyone has a chance to meet everyone else

___You explained major topics which concern the Board

___You have ensured adequate time for questions and answers

___You made sure new members get involved immediately

After the welcoming and training session:

___You sent out minutes that detail what was said

___You have send out an evaluation form

___You have called the new members

You have made sure that new members are able to:

___Take on their roles in the organization both quickly and comfortably

___Feel more connected to one another

___Feel more connected to the organization

___Better understand their role on the Board -- why they were asked to join, and what is expected of them as members

___Operate from the same "script" -- that is, to understand the vision, mission, and their roles in the organization in the same way

___Feel more motivated to do a better job

Example: Sample Topics for a Board of Directors Manual

A manual of relevant Board materials should be provided to each Board member. This manual greatly helps to orient and train new Board members, and ensure efficient organization and access to these materials.

While certainly not required for all manuals, you should consider whether the following topics are relevant for your Board of Directors manual:

• Strategic Plan Information (Vision, Mission, Values, Issues, Goals, Strategies, Work Plans)
• Work Plans (for each Board Committee)
• Board Roster
• Board Member Biographies
• Board Organization
• Background Information
• Code of Conduct
• Committee List
• Membership Policies (if the organization is a membership agency)
• Policy Statement
• List of Current Members
• Chief Executive
• Job Description
• Evaluation Process
• Performance Criteria
• Finances
• Fiscal Policies
• Internal Control Policies (Accounting Procedures)
• Most Recent Overall Financial Statement
• Budget Narrative
• Income and Expense Statement
• Personnel Policies
• Accounting Controls
• Collections for Accounts Past Due
• Conference Room / Meetings
• Dress Code
• During Chief Executive's Absence
• In Case of Fire
• Key Forms
• Kitchen Area
• Large Mailings and Copy Lists
• Office Forms
• Office Supplies
• Other Reimbursements
• Performance Appraisal
• Receptionist/Program Assistance Advance Notice
• Snow Days
• Special Recognitions
• Telephone Coverage
• Time Tracking
• Tracking In-Kind Donations
• Tracking Volunteer Hours
• Travel Reimbursements
• Vacations
• Organization and Services
• Staff Code of Conduct
• Diversity Plan
• Organization Chart
• Job Descriptions
• Salary Scales
• Summary of Benefits
• Staff Address List
• Staff Information Form
• Descriptions of Programs/Services
• Program / Plan Results
• Service Objectives
• Income Objectives
• General Information About Boards
• (any concise materials about Board roles, responsibilities, etc.)

Tool: Evaluation Worksheet

Evaluation Form

 

Today's meeting:

Today's Date:

What did you like best about today's meeting?

 

What did you not like about today's meeting?

 

What information did you want or need that you didn't learn today?

 

What information did you receive that you thought wasn't especially helpful?

 

What additional comments or suggestions do you have for the next orientation and training session?

 

Thank you for spending the time to fill out this evaluation. We look forward to working with you at future meetings!

A PowerPoint presentation summarizing the major points in the section.

Boards are everywhere. If you're reading this Tool Box section, you're probably on a Board, or you are at least aware of some direct influence Boards have on your life. (Maybe you're a member of an organization whose Board members you help choose.)

But even when we're not aware of it, Boards affect our lives in many ways. The schools our children go to, the bank we ask for a loan, the organization that shelters people experiencing homelessness -- all generally have Boards, or some similar ruling body, that decide the criteria for who they will help, and in what ways they will help them.

And yet, Boards get tired. Board members get tired, or left out of the loop, or frustrated with the ineffectiveness of the Board they serve on. Boards make poor decisions or no decisions at all. Old members leave; new ones replace them, sometimes with an inadequate or incorrect understanding of how the Board works.

The question we will attempt to answer in the following pages is, "How can we make sure that doesn't happen?" We will lay out some tried and true methods for maintaining an effective Board over the lifetime of an organization.

We'll start by briefly defining a Board of Directors, then move on to some of the reasons (some obvious, some less so) to maintain a strong Board. From there, we 'll go to the meat and potatoes of the section, and talk about specific things you can do to maintain a Board. As we do in other Tool Box sections, we'll round out the section with resources you might want to check out, as well as an interview with a current Board president and her thoughts on the matter.

Ready? Let's go!

What is a Board of Directors?

A Board of Directors is many things. It is often a watchdog; a cheerleader; a manager; a planner, and a communicator, all at the same time. The Board of an organization is the group that is above all responsible for making sure that the organization's mission continues to be carried out, and that the organization never strays very far from its true focus. It's also, generally speaking, the entity that's legally responsible for the organization.

Of course, there are many types of governing bodies. Some organizations call the group that governs them a Steering Committee, an Executive Committee, a planning group, Trustees, or something else. However, the material in this section should apply to most any governing body with whom your organization works.

Why should you maintain a strong Board?

Maintaining a Board is an ongoing task, and it's not always an easy one. All of us have seen Boards as they wax and wane, becoming more or less effective as the years progress. Sometimes, they can cause real problems for the organization they wish to serve. Developing a system with specific procedures to maintain a strong Board of Directors, regardless of the personalities on that Board at any given moment, has many advantages:

• It ensures that the mission of the organization will continue to be well-understood by those who are in a position to further it
• It helps to pave a smoother relationship between paid staff members and the Board
• It helps to keep the Board from getting into legal problems; and helps to extricate it if it does
• It paves the way for easier fundraising for the organization
• It helps ensure a steady supply of new (and motivated and effective) Board members, the lifeblood of most nonprofit and small community organizations

How do you maintain an effective Board of Directors?

Develop a system to assist Board members in understanding the Board and their roles on it

At a minimum, this includes:

• Making sure Board members have a clear, written understanding of the way things are and why. This generally includes giving members copies of the constitution or bylaws of the organization, its policies, and minutes of Board meetings. One simple, helpful way to do this is to provide all of this in a Board member manual that's designed in a loose-leaf notebook. That way, pages can easily be added or replaced.
• Furnishing clear job descriptions for members. When new members come on board, they should know exactly what they've signed on for before they say yes. This includes time commitment, what kind of fundraising they will be expected to do, and so on. Sometimes a new member may be asked to sign off on a brief statement of roles and responsibilities before formally joining the Board, to make sure that she is clear on what's involved.

Whatever way your organization might choose to do it, this material should serve as an orientation for new members, over and above any more formal or oral orientation they might receive later on.

You might also consider giving some of this information out before a member is formally invited to join the Board, to help them understand exactly what they are getting themselves into. It can also give them an out if there is a mismatch between what is expected and what the potential Board member can deliver.

Design a process for welcoming, training, and mentoring new members

It is important that once members join the Board, your organization has clear guidelines for helping them understand and fulfill their role.

Maintain a healthy, effective relationship with paid staff

There are several good ways to do this, including:

• Inviting staff members (and even interested volunteers) to meetings. In many or even most organizations, the Executive Director or key staff person attends Board meetings as a matter of course. However, it's often worthwhile for staff members to attend meetings as well. In some organizations, staff and volunteers give regular presentations at Board meetings. These can serve to update Board members on the immediate needs, progress, and opportunities available to the organization.
• Making sure the staff is getting the support they need. Board members should regularly ask the Executive Director what would be helpful in getting things done. They can also ask other staff members, who might be less willing to approach the Board. And finally, visit the organization, with an eye towards what else could help things be more comfortable, more efficient, and just all around nicer for the people working in and helped by the organization every day.
• Creating other opportunities for the Board to better understand the work done by staff members. For example, Board members might tour the organization's facilities during normal working hours; or they might help staff a booth at a local festival.

Of course, all of this isn't a one-sided event. The Executive Director, in particular, is often informally or formally responsible for maintaining a healthy and effective relationship with the Board. Both sides need to do their part to ensure the best association possible.

Hold effective meetings

All of us have been frustrated by unproductive meetings, as well as pleasantly surprised by how well a different meeting went. Holding effective meetings is an art that is critical to effective Board maintenance.

Some guidelines:

• Have set, understood rules to give structure to meetings. For example, many Board members swear by Robert's Rules of Order. Having these rules allow you to keep members on task without creating hard feelings.

Of course, not all Boards follow Robert's, and some deliberately choose not to. They may see those rules as too formal and limiting. They may develop their own operating procedures, procedures that work for them. But for any Board, the key point is to have set, understood rules.

The following suggestions come from The Board Cafe:

• Try an unconventional place to meet as part of "stealth board education." If you're on the Board of a performing arts organization, why not meet on stage once a year? If you're on the board of an independent school, try holding a meeting in the science lab or the school library. A food bank? Try having a meeting in the middle of the warehouse.
• Make sure members (especially new members) have the opportunity to get to know one another. After all, that's one of the main reasons we all joined the boards we did! Name tags can be helpful when there are new members present, and snacks before or after every meeting are always appreciated. You might even ask the meeting chair to add to one of the agendas that you'll be buying the first round of drinks for Board members who join you after the meeting!
• Work with the executive director to put together a readable, relevant, interesting Board packet that goes out to Board members at least a week ahead of the meeting.
• Bring in experts to lead discussions on different topics.
• Finally, make sure everyone says something during the meeting. If you're chairing, invite quiet board members to speak by asking them directly for their opinions on the topic at hand, or through encouragement in a private conversation. You can also encourage others to speak without putting direct pressure on them by saying something like, "Any other thoughts on this?" (Looking around the room) "Sylvester? Natasha?"
• Be sure to find a balance between bigger issues and the day-to-day work of the organization. Take time to report on the institution's work. (This is often done by the Executive Director or other staff members.) It's easy to forget and fall into the habit of only dealing with "bigger" issues - that's important, but you need to stay grounded.

On the other hand, the opposite situation may also occur -- Board members' time gets taken up with the nitty-gritty stuff, and the larger issues go unaddressed. The Board must find a balance between dealing with the immediate and concrete, and the longer-term and more general. Sometimes this can't be done well in a given meeting, or even in meetings in general, so some of it can and perhaps should be done "off line" in smaller task groups.

Maintain a sensible work level for Board members

The idea here is that each Board member should have something to do; this should be part of the up-front expectation. If there is nothing for a Board member to do, they're less likely to feel effective, to stay committed, and to stick around. Of course, if there is too much to do, the Board member is also likely to look for an exit. It's a question of balance, of finding something for each member to do, but not too much. Trying to maintain this balance can be a staff responsibility, the responsibility of the Chair of the Board or other officers, or it can be jointly shared.

Develop a policy for dealing with urgent (and not so urgent) matters between meetings

This is the "between the lines" work -- the work that goes on between meetings, which often makes up much or even most of the organization's work. This includes committee and task group work, informal contacts, and so on. There are many different ways to do this. A couple of popular ways to help do so often include:

• Phone trees -- these are especially helpful for small, local Boards
• Communication by e-mail can be a lifesaver for larger groups that are spread out geographically
• Having a designated "point person" who distributes information to everyone
• Developing a small internal newsletter to be sent out to Board members regularly or as needed

Sometimes these are staff responsibility, other times that of the Chair or an Executive committee -- but in any case, it's important to have such policies.

On many Boards, the Executive Committee -- usually the officers, often joined by committee chairs  -- handles any between-meeting emergencies or crises.  When something arises that calls for a Board vote, however, the Board should have a procedure for contacting and polling members that satisfies any legal requirements and conforms to the organization's bylaws.  All Board members should be aware of this procedure -- through the Board handbook or other Board information -- and it should be spelled out in the bylaws as well, so that any votes taken between meetings will be legitimate.

Define terms of membership

Developing terms of membership is a broad topic, under which your Board will need to answer a short list of questions of what's best for your group. These questions include:

How will you choose your officers?

Every Board will do this differently; try to find a system that works for you. One Board we know elects its presidents for three years: one year as president-elect, a second year as president, and a third year as the outgoing president. Other Boards have formal policies, or informal understandings, where the vice-chair one year becomes the chair the next time around. In both instances, these policies help the Board maintain a strong sense of continuity of leadership.

Will your Board be staggered?

As for the larger Board, the terms can be of uniform length, but staggered so that a constant percent of Board members complete their terms in a given year. (Half, if it's a two-year term.) This system can help maintain a healthy duality of experience and fresh ideas.

Probably the most common way of staggering terms is by using three groups and three-year terms.This way, there are never fewer than 2/3 experienced members on the Board. Obviously, this makes no sense for a small Board say, fewer than about 12. But for Boards larger than that, it can really help with both continuity and effectiveness.

With a brand new Board, this can be set up by giving members different lengths of terms. For example, half the members might be given two-year terms, and the other half one-year terms. This sets up the staggered process; it can be done by lot.

Will your Board have term limits?

All Boards have the additional choice of whether members and officers who have completed their terms can run again, or whether it wishes to impose term limits.

How will you ensure a diverse membership?

Whatever type of organization your Board represents, it will be important to ensure that Board membership remains diverse. This diversity can and generally should represent a wide continuum: racial, geographic, religious, socioeconomic, and so on. It's especially important that the Board continuously represents the people it tries to help.

It's important to remember, though, that in some cases you might want people on your Board who have no or very little experience dealing with this type of group. These people may very well need special or extra training for program participants or others. They may feel (rightly, in many cases) that they have no idea what's going on, and don't see how they can contribute. Sometimes they have difficulty reading and understanding Board communications minutes, plans, etc. They need not only training, but a lot of support --perhaps a mentor from among the other Board members -- in order to learn how to function on the Board and give it the advantage of their experience and point of view.

Some Boards have a Nominating Committee (either formal or informal) whose charge it is to be on the lookout for new Board members, with various predetermined skills and appropriate diversity. The Nominating Committee may also have the responsibility of contacting prospective Board members in advance and sounding them out.

The general idea here is always to have potential new members in the pipeline. The leadership ought to be thinking in multiple time periods -- present and future, and maybe also past -- and to be doing so in parallel.

Be aware of state and national laws that will affect the Board and the organization

Depending on where you are and what you are doing, there are many different laws that will determine, at least in part, what you can or cannot do. One example is personal liability of Board members -- can individual Board members be sued for something the Board or organization does? In at least some places, the answer is yes. Or if your organization decides to raise money by selling raffle tickets (or cookbooks or brownies or T-shirts or anything else), how do you, as an officially designated 501(c)(3) organization, deal with that? And so on.

It's often a very good idea to have a lawyer or someone else who is very familiar with nonprofit law as a Board member to help answer these questions.

One thing is certain: you want to know the rules before you play the game. It is always the Board's responsibility to keep staff abreast of laws and regulations, not the other way around.

Develop and maintain a conflict-of-interest policy

This should be a standard part of a packet given to new members. All Board members and executive staff should review the policy when they start their roles with the organization. It is also common practice to sign a paper that acknowledges that they have read and will comply with the policy.

Organize an annual retreat

This can be informal or formal; it may just be an annual, longer-than-usual meeting with the purpose of planning for the year ahead. It's important to have a regular block of time set aside for looking at the "big picture."

At these retreats, ask the Board to decide the year's agenda. Also, offer Board members the opportunity to say what organizational programs or community issues they would like to learn more about over the coming year, and add these items to the agendas of upcoming meetings.

Finally, this time can and should also be a time for members to evaluate (at least informally) the Board's work over the past year, and what changes they believe should occur in the coming year. Evaluation of what's already happened should always be the first step in planning ahead.

Have regular (if infrequent) formal evaluations

Along with the more casual evaluations we suggest be built into annual retreats, we suggest a formal evaluation every two to four years. This can be a good time to discuss how things are going both among the Board (are our meetings as effective as they could be?) as well as with the organization the Board serves. These evaluations can also be a time to look at the organization's by-laws, and make sure they are still in keeping with the organizations needs, or if they should be modified.

Celebrate your accomplishments!

A Board is more likely to be maintained if it is getting something done (which in turn depends on structure, leadership, etc.) But the social relationships, and the good feelings that come from them, are at least as important. People will come to Board meetings, and work hard for the Board, when they feel they are being valued and that they like the others who are there -- when they are doing something that is both productive and fun.

In Summary

It's easy for many of us to be very task-oriented: to want to start something, see it through to completion, congratulate ourselves, and move on. Unfortunately, Board maintenance isn't like that: it's constant work (and constant fun); but in any case, the job's not done until the Board dissolves.

Because of this, however, it offers continuous opportunities for growth and learning. And by maintaining an effective Board, you are well on your way to a highly effective organization that really is able to reach your goals.

___You understand what a Board of Directors is, what are its functions and how it works

___You have developed a system to assist Board members in understanding the Board and their roles on it

___You have designed a process for welcoming, training, and mentoring new members

___You have made sure your relationship with your staff is healthy and effective

___You have made plans for having effective meetings in the future

___You gave the Board members a sensible work level

___You have developed a policy for dealing with urgent matters between meetings

___You have defined the terms for the membership

___You are aware of state and national laws that will affect the Board and the organization

___You have developed a conflict-of-interest policy and maintained it

___You organized an annual retreat

___You plan to have formal evaluations regularly

___You celebrated all of your accomplishments with the Board

Example: Interview with Margaret Schmidt

Margaret "CeCe" Schmidt is the past president of the American Society for Clinical Laboratory Science, the oldest organization of laboratory professionals in the country. We thank Dr. Schmidt for sharing her time and expertise.

CTB: Talk a little about the setup of your Board.

Dr. Schmidt: Our Board is 15 members total; they are all volunteers. The continental and non-continental United States are divided into 10 sections called regions. Each one of those 10 sections has a regional director, and their composite states are their responsibility. Then each of those directors is one of the 15 people on the Board together with the four officers. There is also a student representative on the Board. Regional directors are three years in term, officers are basically three years in term, [and the] student is one year.

The meetings are four a year: one by conference call, three face-to-face. The office staff in Washington, D.C. handles the databank, so it's a typical volunteer professional association setup. Our by-laws are governed by Robert's Rules of Order. So, all order of business has to be in reference to and according to Robert's Rules. Most of the volunteers on the Board are aware of that, however... they basically depend on the officers and the executive vice-president to keep them on the clean and straight with respect to handling business.

And as far as what make [Boards] work, it is directly related to the talent or lack of same that you have on the Board. Probably the worst failure of Boards is understanding the judiciary financial and legal responsibility of the officers. So you have a personnel role, you have a financial role, you have a legal and a liable role, and those are things that people...don't think about that when they get elected. So, there is a very strong need for a good Board orientation.

In experience with Board meetings, the biggest tangle you can get into are those revolving around contentious issues. Under those circumstances your strongest suit is your ability to keep the conversation flowing, keep the tempers at a minimum, and get real business transacted as opposed to having people get on their soapbox.

CTB: How do you do that?

Dr. Schmidt: You do that by following Robert's Rules and just pulling it down on their heads when you have to when you hear the conversation going into a 360. You also do it by setting time limits. You do it by setting number of times people can speak on the issue. You do it by a lot of politicking before you ever get to the Board meeting, because you need to know what is the range of emotion on a given subject. It gets out of hand very, very quickly otherwise and goes circular on you.

Alternately, then, you have to let it spin. As the chair, you have no vote except to break a tie, and your role is to keep a process moving, not to take part. It's very hard to keep your mouth shut, particularly if you have a strong feeling one way or the other. If you do need to speak, then you need to turn the meeting chairmanship over to somebody else and go below your line and speak and then take back up. So, a certain amount of orderliness is really critical. Having a firm agenda before you go into the meeting is critical, because if it's not on the agenda, you do not have to allow it in. So that's another maneuver that you can use to keep contentious subject matter out when it's not ready to be discussed or it has no role in the meeting.

CTB: What do you do in between meetings?

Dr. Schmidt: In between meetings we drive each other crazy by e-mail, because a lot of the 'What do we do about this?' 'Who do we need to get to do that?' is constant interplay between our organization, and we have report people to go to meetings, send people here, work with projects, work with the industry and the vendors in the laboratory arena. That's constantly done between the officers and the whole Board electronically. So it's really saved our muffins with respect to the dollars in calls and post-its, and it's immediate feedback. We changed the by-laws about three or four years ago to allow for electronic voting.

It's fairly smooth as long as people do what they're expected to do. That's the trick.

CTB: What happens when they don't?

Dr. Schmidt: When they don't, well, then there are all those sorts of possibilities from the very minimal which would be to urge them to please report and try to embarrass them into doing what they're supposed to do...right up to sanction and expulsion, and that's very clear in the by-laws and the standard operating procedures and policies. We've not had to do that, although there have been moments where we came close.

CTB: What advice can you give to new Board members?

Dr. Schmidt: Get organized. Do your homework before you get there. Read what it is you're supposed to read, talk with the people you're supposed to talk to, and be prepared to present pro/con right there in succinct terms so we don't go into a flipping 360. If the report's in the agenda book, all accurate, thorough, complete, presenting all the signs necessary, the discussion is there, and we've read them before we get there, the Board meeting could be 20 minutes long, theoretically. And there have been some of our meetings that have been very short because they were well done. But the whole organization depends on whether all 15 people (in our case) arrive ready to do it and ready to answer and ask the appropriate questions. If that doesn't happen, it's an absolute sloppy zoo.

Tool: Key Points for Facilitating Community Boards of People with Lived Experiences

The Justice-Involved and Emerging Adult Populations Initiative (JEAP) highlights key points on how to be a facilitator in environments where people have lived experiences in this Tipsheet: Key Points For Facilitating Community Boards (PDF).

A PowerPoint presentation summarizing the major points in the section.

Thoroughly written bylaws help organizations know how to handle new situations or issues that may arise. Bylaws can save time trying to work out organizational complications, help define your mission or goals, and keep things running smoothly. In this section, we'll look at what bylaws are, when they should be written, how to write them, and how to use them to keep your group on track.

What are bylaws?

Bylaws are the written rules that control the internal affairs of an organization. Bylaws generally define things like the group's official name, purpose, requirements for membership, officers' titles and responsibilities, how offices are to be assigned, how meetings should be conducted, and how often meetings will be held.

Bylaws also govern the way the group must function as well as the roles and responsibilities of its officers. They are essential in helping an organization map out its purpose and the practical day-to-day details of how it will go about its business. Bylaws serve as the legal guidelines of the organization, and the organization could be challenged in court for its actions if it violates them. For nonprofits, at least, they often have to be filed with the Secretary of State of the state in which you're incorporated or registered.

Bylaws are also sometimes mistakenly called standard operating procedures or policies and procedures, but those are really different things, as they tend to govern day -to-day operations and don't have the force of law, which bylaws do.

Why should an organization have bylaws?

Having bylaws can be helpful to almost any type of organization, regardless of size or purpose. Determining exactly how your organization is going to operate and putting that down on paper can help keep things running smoothly, provide the answers to tough questions (like what to do about a difficult officer), save enormous amounts of time and deliberation, help you define your mission, or structure the organization to correspond to that mission.

Having bylaws is necessary if your organization wants to apply for nonprofit status.

Having bylaws helps keep your organization focused on its intended purpose by specifically defining that purpose.

When should bylaws be written?

If your organization doesn't yet have bylaws, here are a few situations in which creating bylaws may be helpful:

• When you need clarification on how officers are elected, the organization's purpose, or other basic matters relating to how your group operates
• When your organization is undergoing a change in its purpose or the way it is run
• When you want to apply for nonprofit status

Some groups develop bylaws right at the start, but that is not always necessary, and should only be done if there is a clear need. It is often helpful to get started doing the work and then develop bylaws as needed.

How do you write bylaws?

Before you begin, think a bit about whether you really need bylaws and what purpose they will serve for your organization. For nonprofit organizations, bylaws are actually a legal document that the organization is responsible for upholding. For organizations that provide direct service, bylaws usually don't apply to the organization as a whole; instead, they might delineate the board's powers as opposed to those of the Director. Towns work the same way: there are bylaws that specify what people can and can't do (just like state laws), but the various boards often have their own bylaws. So take some time to think about what the bylaws are for - the board? The organization as a whole? Once you have a good idea of the purpose of your bylaws, you can proceed with writing them.

Gather examples of the bylaws of similar organizations for reference

Seeing how other groups like yours have written their bylaws will be immensely helpful. Getting examples from several different groups will let you see a good range of styles and ideas. You shouldn't just copy another group's bylaws and then stick your organization's name in here and there, but other groups' bylaws can make a good rough guide.

Decide by whom and how the bylaws will be written and approved

Will it be your board of directors, your officers, your steering committee, or some combination of these groups? Will you approve portions of the bylaws by consensus, or will each part have to be agreed upon unanimously? Before you start, know how you're going to make these decisions, and then choose one person to be in charge of writing up the first draft and making additional changes. If the bylaws are going to be long or complex, you might divide up the writing tasks, with each of two or more people writing particular sections.

Write a first draft of your bylaws

The group that will approve the bylaws should meet at least once to come up with a rough outline for the writer before writing begins. Depending on how much you already know about how your organization is going to operate, the first draft may be easy for one person to complete on their own or it may require you to meet as a group and work together. This is not the time to get into lengthy discussions about the particulars of the bylaws; instead, you should put together enough generally agreed-upon information for the writer to compose a first draft, and leave the specifics for later discussion.

When writing your first draft, you may find that filling in a general bylaws outline (such as the one included in Tools at the end of this section) is much easier than writing it from scratch. You can leave blanks on specific things you're not sure about; those can easily be filled in when you meet again as a group.

Below is a list of items that typically appear in bylaws. You may decide to alter this somewhat for your own purposes, so keep in mind that your bylaws don't necessarily have to be arranged in this order or include all of these components, and you may decide to add components of your own.

Article I. Name and purpose of the organization.

There should be no doubt as to the official name of your organization. If there are other names used to refer to your group (shortened versions that are easier to say in casual conversation, for example), you might mention here that your group is also known as these names. The name of the organization is usually indicated in bylaws with the words, "This organization shall be known as" or "The official name of this organization is" as seen in the example below.

Clearly defining your group's purpose helps you keep your focus. Will the primary purpose be service, social, political, or something else? Is the organization focused on a single issue, a set of issues, a geographic area, or a specific population?

Example:

From the bylaws of the Baylor University Faculty Senate:

Article I. Officers, Elections, and Duties.

Section 1. The elected officers of the Faculty Senate shall be the Chair, Chair-Elect, Secretary, and Publicity Officer, each elected annually from the Senate membership. The Chair shall appoint a Parliamentarian and such other officers as shall be deemed desirable.

Section 2. The officers shall be elected as follows:

On or before the regularly-scheduled April meeting of the Senate, the Chair shall appoint a Nominating Committee comprised of seven Senators. The Nominating Committee shall accept nominations and recommendations from members of the Senate, shall determine whether nominees will consent to serve if elected, and shall prepare a slate of candidates with at least one nominee for each position. Members of the Senate shall be advised of such slate of candidates with at least one nominee for each position. Members of the Senate shall be advised of such slate of candidates at least one week prior to the regularly-scheduled May meeting.

This may also be a good place to include your vision and mission statements.

Article II. Membership.

This explains what the members' rights are, what their limitations are, and what, if any, requirements there are for membership (if membership is open to anyone, say so!). It should also clearly state any required fees, attendance requirements, and any circumstances in which membership can be revoked. If you are going to allow honorary memberships, the particulars about that should be included here as well.

Example:

From the bylaws of the University of Virginia's College at Wise Student Government Association:

ARTICLE II: Membership

Section 1: All persons enrolled for six or more semester hours at The University of Virginia's College at Wise are considered members of the Student Government Association during the time of their enrollment and shall be entitled to all the rights and privileges thereof.

Article III. Officers and decision-making.

In this section of your bylaws, you should explain:

• Governing structure: The pecking order in your organization; who reports to whom in terms of the overall governing structure. The bylaws will explain that the Director is hired and overseen by the Board, for instance, but won't set out who other staff members report to or what their duties are: that's the province of the Director and the day-to-day operation of the organization.
• Officers: Official offices of the group, with their correct titles and required duties specifically outlined, and how long their terms should run.
• Procedures for filling and vacating offices: If an office is to be elected, who votes on it and how; if an office is to be appointed, who makes the appointment. Also, what must happen in order to remove someone from office.
• Committees: What, if any, standing committees (committees that are ongoing) there will be, how special committees (committees that only exist for the duration of completing a specific task or project) will be formed, how committee chairs will be chosen, and how members will be appointed to those committees.
• Decisions: How decisions are to be made and how many members and/or officers are required for quorum (the number that must be present for official business to take place).
• Amendments: How changes to the bylaws should be made. Usually it requires previous notice (for example, telling members at two consecutive meetings that a bylaw amendment will be voted on at the third meeting, or sending out a postcard to all members telling them that a bylaw amendment will be voted on and when) and a two-thirds majority vote.

There are numerous other areas your bylaws might cover, depending on the nature of your organization.  Some common ones include standing (i.e., permanent) and other committees, conflict of interest, indemnification of officers (this means that officers and board members can't be held personally liable for the debts of the organization, or prosecuted for illegal organizational activities, unless they were caused by the illegal actions of one or more particular officers), the specific duties of the board as opposed to those of the director or CEO -- the list can go on.  Try to think about all the structures that have to do with governing the organization.  The more nearly complete your bylaws are, and the better they reflect the actual character and workings of the organization, the more useful they'll be.

Article IV. General, special, and annual meetings.

This part of your bylaws should explain how often meetings are to be held. This doesn't have to be very specific, but it should be clear whether the organization will meet on a regular basis or if it will meet only as needed. The bylaws should explain who has the authority to call meetings and how notice of upcoming meetings must be given to members. You should also describe your meeting procedures (i.e. whether you're going to use Robert's Rules of Order, the prerogatives of the Chair, who gets the floor and how, etc.)

Special meetings should also be covered in this section of the bylaws. Special meetings are sometimes restricted to the board or the officers. This section should explain how special meetings are to be arranged, who has the authority to call a special meeting, what sort of business may be conducted at a special meeting, and who may attend.

Finally, if your organization will be having an annual meeting of any sort, the specifics of how that will work should be included in this part of the bylaws. Annual reports should be covered here as well - when they'll be delivered, what they'll include, who prepares them, etc.

Example:

From the bylaws of the Producers Guild of America

ARTICLE IV: Meetings of Members

Section 1. Regular Meetings. The Annual Meeting of the members of the Guild shall be held on the first Monday in May in each year in the County of Los Angeles, at such hour and place as the Board may designate, for the purpose of electing Directors and Officers, considering reports of the affairs of this Guild and transacting such business as may be properly brought before the meeting. If, in the opinion of the Board of Directors, the Annual Meeting can not be conveniently held on the first Monday of May, it shall be empowered to call said Meeting on a Monday during either the month of May or the month of June of the same year.

Section 2. Special Meetings. Special meetings of the members of the Guild shall be held whenever called by the Board of Directors, and such special meetings shall also be held within thirty days after being so requested in writing by at least 20% of the members in good standing, which request shall specify the purpose of such meeting and shall be addressed to the Secretary of the Guild. If upon receipt of any such request the Secretary shall fail to call and give notice of a special meeting, the members requesting shall have the right to fix a time and place for such meeting and give notice thereof in the manner hereinafter specified.

Section 3. Notice Of Meetings. Notice of the time and place of meetings of the members, whether regular meetings or special meetings, shall be sent to each member of the Guild not less than seven, nor more than fourteen days before the date of said meeting. All such notices shall be addressed to the members at the last address registered with the Guild, and shall be given by personal delivery, telegraph or mail, telegraph or postage charges prepaid.

Section 4. Adjourned Meetings And Notice Thereof. Any members' meetings, regular or special, may be adjourned from time to time by a vote of the majority of the members present, in person or in proxy, and when any members' meeting is so adjourned no notice of adjournment need be given unless the adjournment shall be for a period in excess of thirty (30) days.

Article V. Board of Directors.

If your organization has a board, this section should describe what its role is in the group, how many people will be on the board, how long a board member's term will run, how often the board will meet, and how board members will be appointed or selected. It should also designate how many board members must be present for quorum, and how members can be removed from the board.

Example:

From the bylaws of the Federation of American Women's Clubs Overseas

ARTICLE V: Board of Directors

Section 1: Number, selection. The Board of Directors shall consist of the elected officers of the Corporation and the Secretary.

Section 2: Qualifications. At the time of election, all elected Directors must be American members of Regular or Associate member clubs.

Section 3: Vacancies. Any vacancy occurring among the Directors between Biennial Conferences shall be filled in the following manner:

a. The office of President shall be assumed by an elected officer only, in the order of First, Second and Third Vice-Presidents.
b. In the absence or resignation of a Vice-President, the President shall appoint a replacement with the approval of the Board of Directors.
c. The Assistant Treasurer shall assume the duties of the Treasurer in her absence or resignation.
d. The appointment of a Secretary and an Assistant Treasurer pro tempore is left to the discretion of the acting President.

Section 4: Powers.

a. The Corporation shall be governed by the Board of Directors.
b. The Board of Directors shall have full charge of the property and business of the Corporation, with full power and authority to manage and conduct same, subject to the instructions of the Council.
c. The Board of Directors shall have the power to remove Officers and Directors for cause, pursuant to the instructions of the Council.

Section 5: Meetings. There shall be at least one meeting of the Board of Directors annually.

Section 6: Quorum. Two-thirds of the members of the Board of Directors present or represented by proxy shall constitute a quorum at a Board meeting.

Section 7: Resignations. All resignations shall be made in writing and addressed to the President.

After you have completed your draft of the bylaws, send copies to all the people who will be involved in the process of approving them. If possible, get copies to them in advance of your meeting so they'll have a chance to go over them carefully before meeting.

Meet as a group to discuss the proposed bylaws

Get copies of the proposed bylaws out to the group that's going to edit or go over them well in advance of the meeting so they'll have time to reflect and can have their questions, issues, prospective changes, or concerns ready. This will not only save time, but it will also make it much more likely that errors or ill-considered bylaws will be caught, and that the final version will mirror what everyone really wants.

Get together and go over the bylaws together. You may find this really calls for one person taking charge and reading off the bylaws for approval, or if you have a smaller or more casual group you may take turns reading the articles and sections aloud. Go over each article and section individually for approval, and do so carefully. It may seem tedious, but your bylaws are very important and should be handled with attention to detail.

This is also the time you should consider whether your bylaws are fair and democratic. Do they distribute the power in your organization in a fair way? Do they allow members enough of a voice in how the organization is run?

Take note and discuss any changes, voting when necessary. Depending on how long and how complicated your bylaws are, this may take more than one meeting. When you've worked through and made all the changes, adjourn to have the final draft made.

Complete and approve the final draft

Again, make sure that people get copies ahead of time. If the whole membership has to vote on the bylaws, you need to figure out how that's going to happen, especially if the membership is large. You may find it easiest to send them out a letter explaining the history of the bylaws (who wrote them, what the process was, etc.) and an approve /disapprove form to send back. If you do it this way, there should be a last date to receive the votes, and tallies will be made based on either the whole membership or the number of votes received. Another option would be to designate a meeting at which the bylaws will be voted on and give the membership written notice about the meeting in advance.

Make all the agreed-upon changes to the bylaws and meet again to go over the final draft. When everyone is satisfied that the changes have been made correctly and the bylaws are as they should be, you should vote to approve bylaws. The date that the final draft was approved should appear at the bottom of the bylaws in all future copies.

Be sure copies are given to anyone who needs them

All officers, members of your board, and committee chairs should be given copies of the bylaws. Also, you should either send copies to all members, or have copies easily available to those who want them.

Use your bylaws!

So now your new bylaws are in effect - that's wonderful! But they're not worth much if you don't actually use them. If your organization has a parliamentarian - an officer or a consultant who advises the officers and board on parliamentary procedure and generally makes sure that meetings are run smoothly and according to your bylaws - then they can help remind people whenever the organization, one of its officers, a board member, or a regular member is doing something contrary to your bylaws.

Otherwise, you will just have to make sure that your officers make an effort to keep the bylaws in mind when doing your organization's business. Be sure that a copy of the bylaws is handy any time that official organization business is being conducted. If there is ever any question about how exactly you should proceed, don't hesitate to consult the bylaws. And if you come upon a situation you didn't think of when writing your bylaws, consider dealing with that in the final step of the bylaw process, which we'll talk about next.

Review and amend your bylaws periodically

Getting together as a group from time to time to go over your bylaws and, if necessary, amend them will insure that your board, officers, and members remain familiar with the bylaws. It also will allow you to gauge whether your bylaws accurately reflect the direction of the organization, whether changes need to be made in the light of events since the bylaws were written, or if any clarifications need to be made.

Bylaw amendments can be suggested at any time, either by anyone, if that's the way you prefer it, or by a group of people (if you use this method, be sure to specify how many people must propose the change), or by any board member whatever specifications work best for your organization. Not matter what, there should be room for those kinds of suggestions whenever there's an issue.

In Summary

Bylaws can be easy to write and even easier to change if you are well-organized and have a good plan in place for how to go about it. By following a simple outline, just about anyone can write bylaws for a new or existing organization, and having bylaws in place will help eliminate confusion and encourage consistency in the ways your organization is supposed to go about the things you have to do to reach your goals.

Before making your bylaws draft:

___You have gathered examples of the bylaws of similar organizations for reference

While writing your bylaws draft:

___You have named and decided on the purpose of your organization

___The stated requirements for your organization's membership have been established

___In your draft you have stated and explained:

• Governing Structure
• Officers
• Procedures
• Committees
• Decisions
• Amendments

___You have decided how often meetings will be held

___You described the role of the Board of Directors if your organization has one

After completion of bylaws draft:

___You have given copies to the people involved in the approval process

___You have met as a group to discuss the proposed bylaws

Upon completion and approval of final draft:

___You've sent copies of the bylaws to anyone who needs them

___You have put the bylaws into effect through your officers

___You have made plans to review and amend the bylaws

Example 1: Links to Organizational Bylaws

The following links will take you to web pages that feature the bylaws of many different types of organizations.

Green Party of San Diego County

South Carolina Police Chiefs Association

Sierra Club

Oak Hill Association of Neighborhoods

Albany Civic Theater

Example 2: Model Bylaws for a Community Health Committee

This model is drawn from Mid-Michigan District Health Dept., Michigan, 1989.

Article I. Name

The name of this committee shall be ___________ County Community Health Committee.

Article II. Purpose and Goals

The overall mission of the committee is to assist the Board of Health by advising the Board regarding the health problems of _______________ County and thus assist the Board in its responsibility to undertake "community assessment." The Committee will promote the prevention of premature death, disability, and illness by developing a ___________ County community health plan for recommendation to the Board. The role of the Board of Health is to support the Committee by providing the resources needed by the Committee to undertake the work, and by facilitating the planning process. The following is a proposed objectives statement.

The mission of the Committee is to assist the Board of Health by:

1. Developing a community health plan that includes health problems identification, problem analysis incorporating the identification of risk factors, direct contributing factors, and indirect contributing factors.
2. Proposing actions to remedy indirect contributing factors, remove associated barriers to such remedies, and obtain resources that can contribute to the remedies.
3. Establishing priorities for all identified health problems.
4. Identifying department/organization work teams that should coordinate efforts with respect to each health problem.
5. Drafting and presenting to the Board the recommended health plan.
6. Promoting and supporting the importance of reducing the health problems to the Board and the community.
7. Developing and maintaining good communications with the board via monthly reports to the Board by the Health Officer and periodic reports from the Executive Committee of the Health Committee.

Article. III. Members

Section 1. Number. The Committee shall consist of no less than 12 members and no more than 28. A vacancy shall not prevent the Committee from conducting business.

Section 2. Appointment and removal. Initial members of the committee shall be appointed by the Board of Health. Future members and/or members to fill vacancies of the Committee shall be appointed by the Committee. The Committee shall have the right to remove Committee members for good cause shown after notice and a hearing before the Committee as a whole. A two-thirds (2/3) majority is required for removal. Automatic removal results in a calendar year. Recommendations for membership will be accepted from any source.

Section 3. Term. Committee members shall serve for staggered three (3) year terms. This does not preclude any member from being reappointed.

Section 4. Compensation. All members of the Committee shall serve without compensation.

Section 5. Voting. Each member or his/her Committee-approved proxy shall be entitled to one vote on each matter submitted to a vote of the Committee. Members shall nominate proxies to the Committee for consideration and vote.

Section 6. Staff members. Staff and coordination will be provided by the health department.

Section 7. Volunteer status. Committee members and proxies serve on a volunteer basis to the Board of Health.

Section 8. Board of Health representative. The Health Officer or his/her designated representative of the Board of Health.

Article IV. Meetings

Section 1. Regular Meetings. Regular meetings of the Committee shall be held on a monthly or as-needed basis.

Section 2. Special Meetings. Special meetings of the Committee may be held on call of the Board of Health, the Chairperson of the Committee, or by any three (3) members of the Committee.

Section 3. Notice of Meeting. Written notice stating the date and hour of each meeting shall be delivered or mailed to each member not less than five days before each meeting. Announcement of meetings will be made through the local media.

Section 4. Quorum. A quorum for the purpose of holding a meeting shall consist of not less than six (6) Committee members.

Section 5. Manner of Acting. A quorum present, the act of a majority of the members present shall constitute the action of the entire Committee, except as may be otherwise provided in these Bylaws.

Section 6. Parliamentary Procedure. Robert's Rules of Order is adopted.

Article V. Officers

The officers of the Committee shall consist of the following and such other officers as the Committee may from time to time designate and appoint:

a) Chairperson

b) Vice-Chairperson

c) Recording Secretary

d) Executive Committee

The Chairperson shall preside at all meetings of the Committee. In the absence of the Chairperson, the Vice-Chairperson shall preside. The Recording Secretary shall supervise and present minutes at each meeting.

Article VI. Committees

Section 1. Subcommittees may be appointed specializing in concerns relative to children, adolescents, adults, seniors, or subject matter.

Section 2. The Executive Committee shall report to/meet with the Board of Health periodically to report Committee efforts to the Board and to plan development/revision status.

Article VII. Task Force

Task forces may be appointed as needed to accomplish specific short-term objectives.

Article VIII. Books and Records

The Committee shall keep minutes of all proceedings of the Committee and such other books and records as may be required for the proper conduct of its business and affairs.

Article IX. Amendments

These Bylaws may be amended at any regular or special meeting of the Committee. Written notice of the proposed Bylaw change shall be mailed or delivered to each member at least five (5) days prior to the date of the meeting. The Board of Health must approve changes in the Bylaws. Bylaw changes require a two-thirds (2/3) majority vote of the Committee members present.

Tool: Sample Bylaws

This is a general, "fill-in-the-blank" set of bylaws. You may wish to use this as a general outline for your own bylaws.

Bylaws of _____________________________________________________

Article I: Name and Purpose.

Section 1: The name of the organization shall be _______________________________

Section 2: (Name of organization) is organized for the purpose of ___________________

_________________________________________________________________

Article II. Membership.

Section 1: In order to become a member of (name of organization), potential members must meet the following requirements: __________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

Section 2: Members of (name of organization) have the following rights and responsibilities: __________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

Article III. Officers and decision-making.

Section 1: The governing structure of (name of organization) is as follows:

__________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

Section 2: Officers' titles and main duties are as follows:

a. President:
__________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

b. Vice President:
__________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

c. _________________:  
__________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

d. _________________:  
__________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

Section 3: Procedures for filling and vacating offices. An officer shall be dropped for excess absences from his or her office if he or she has _____ unexcused absences from meetings in a year. An officer may also be removed under the following circumstances:
__________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

Section 4: Committees:
__________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

Section 5: Decisions

a. Decisions are to be made as follows:
__________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

b. At least ______% of the total membership must be present in order to have a quorum.

c. Amendments to the bylaws must be made as follows:
__________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

Article IV. General, special, and annual meetings.

Section 1: Regular meetings are to be held as follows:
__________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

Meetings may be called by the following people: _________________________________________________________________

For meetings, notice __________________ (in writing, via phone, via email) of at least

____________ (days/weeks/months) must be given to members.

Section 2: Special meetings may be called by ______________________________ (who has authority to call them) under the following circumstances: _______________________

Section 3: Annual meeting: The date of the annual meeting shall be set by _______ and notice ________ (in writing, via phone, via email) of at least______ (days/weeks/months) will be given to members for the annual meeting.

Article V. Board of Directors

Section 1: Board size and role. The board shall have up to ___ and not fewer than

___ members. The board is responsible for____________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

Section 2: The Board shall meet at least ____ (frequency), at an agreed upon time and place.

Section 3: Elections and terms. Board members will be chosen by ____________________
__________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

All board members shall serve _____ (month/year) terms, but ____ (are/are not) eligible for re-election.

Section 4: Quorum. At least _____% of the board members must be present before board business may be conducted.

Section 5: Resignations and Termination. Resignations from the board must be in writing

and must be given to ____________ (whom). A board member shall be dropped for

excess absences from the board if he or she has _____ unexcused absences from board

meetings in a year. An board member may also be removed under the following circumstances:
__________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

Section 6: Special meetings. Special meetings of the board may be called under the following circumstances:
__________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

These bylaws were approved at a meeting of the ___________________ (board of directors, officers, general membership) on ____________________(date).

A PowerPoint presentation summarizing the major points in the section.

 

Parts of this section were adapted from “The Power of an Untapped Resource: Exploring Youth Representation on Your Board or Committee,” by Hans Bernard, published and edited by the Association of Alaska School Boards’ Initiative for Community Engagement, and the Alaska Department of Health and Social Services.

The board of the Coalition for Youth was at a loss. After a year of planning and another of offering a variety of programs, the Coalition had reached a total of 21 adolescents – a tiny percentage of the overall teen population of the area, and fewer than 10% of those the Coalition expected to draw in. In a lively meeting, the director of the Teen Outreach Program pointed out that there was not a single youth on the board, nor had youth been consulted in the course of the planning process.

“I’ve brought this up before,” she said, “and been dismissed as too much of an idealist. But our program has always had adolescents on our board as full members, and they’ve been responsible and valuable. They know more about what children are thinking and what they need than any of us do, and they should have seats on this board.”

The other board members were forced to admit that what they’d been doing hadn’t been working to attract youth to programs that were meant to decrease youth violence, encourage adolescents to stay in school, and help them to develop and work toward higher goals for themselves.  Given few alternatives, board members agreed to explore inviting youth onto the board. But which youth?  And what would they do on the board once they joined?

Whether out of necessity, like the Coalition, or whether for reasons of philosophy, logic, and/or simple fairness, many boards, commissions, and committees choose to include youth among their membership. This section will help you explore that possibility, looking at what it means, what it entails, and how to make it happen.

The video below features a coalition that includes youth in decision-making – critical for an initiative meant to benefit youth.

What do we mean by including youth on your board or committee?

Including youth on boards, commissions, or committees means recruiting young people – almost always adolescents – to serve as members or representatives on those bodies. The youth are often, though not always, drawn either from the population served by the board’s parent organization, agency, institution, or initiative, or from the community on which it focuses. You might want to include them in order to gain a different perspective on the issues you’re concerned with, to provide a voice for youth on your board in order to gain more youth buy-in for your programs or goals, to demonstrate your commitment to youth leadership and your belief in young people’s ability to accept and discharge responsibility, or simply because you believe all sectors of the community should be represented on the board of an entity such as yours.

For the purposes of this section and this topic, the “youth” we refer to are 13-18-year-olds.  In most cases, it’s wise to consider young people between 15 and 18 for board membership, since adolescents usually don’t yet have the level of maturity or the experience to handle the situation.  There are exceptions to this rule – one is used as an example later in the section – but, in general, it makes a good deal of sense both for the board and for the adolescent in question, who can find themself in a difficult spot if they’re handed a responsibility they’re not ready for.

That’s the general explanation.There are also some specifics that will help in thinking about the material in the rest of the section.

Let’s start with some definitions:

A nonprofit board, or board of directors, is the formal governing body of almost all incorporated (and some unincorporated) nonprofit organizations, initiatives, or institutions, and many public bodies as well. Boards have specific responsibilities for the mission, finances, and governing of the organization. These are laid out in the organization’s bylaws and, in some cases, specified by law. The Board usually makes decisions about or oversees hiring and firing the Director, the directions the organization might move in, how to respond to crises and other unusual situations, finances, and legal and other matters that concern the organization as a whole.  Most boards of community-based organizations and educational and charitable institutions also help to raise money, and to represent the organization in the community.

An organization or initiative may have a somewhat less formal governing body, often called a steering committee.  Steering committees function similarly to boards, but may be open to anyone who wants to join, or – depending on the structure of the organization – may not have the kinds of legal responsibilities that a board does.

A commission is generally a government body that has charge of a particular area of functioning.  Many communities have a Parks Commission, for example, that oversees the establishment, location, design, use, and upkeep of public parks.  Commissions are usually appointed by a public official (a mayor, for instance), but are sometimes elected.

A commission may also be the name given to a group appointed, almost always by a government official or body, to study and report on an event or issue.  U.S. presidents regularly appoint commissions to examine such areas as poverty, response to natural and human-made disasters, civil rights, and other pressing matters.  These commissions may include members from all political points of view, and mirror, at least somewhat, the racial, ethnic, cultural, gender, and geographic diversity of the country.

A committee is usually a part of a larger organization or initiative, and is formed to deal with a specific issue or area of functioning. A board or commission is likely to have a number of committees dealing with specific issues, as well as finances, personnel matters, public relations, and other general concerns of the parent body. In some cases, freestanding groups are also called committees.  These are generally groups formed to address or oppose a particular issue, and sometimes are similar to boards and commissions. Task forces and similar bodies are halfway between: they usually are part of larger groups (although not always), and they generally are formed to address particular issues.

In order to make this section easier to read, we’ll refer from here on just to boards, except in cases where the items we’re discussing play out differently for boards, commissions, and committees.  Otherwise, “board” really refers to all three types of bodies.

There are at least three ways in which youth might be included on boards. What is best for your organization or body will depend on the laws it must follow, its purposes for including youth, and a number of other factors we’ll touch on in the course of the section.

Including youth as full board members

Young people are recruited to join the board, fulfill the same general functions, vote on the same issues, and bear the same responsibilities as adult board members. They may be expected to help the board understand issues from a youth viewpoint (just as business people might be expected to help the board understand issues from a business viewpoint), but they’re treated as equals and full board members in every way. They can be elected to board offices, chair committees, and vote on any issue that comes up that doesn’t represent a conflict of interest, just as any other board member can.

Before you invite youth to join your board as full members, make sure there’s nothing in your bylaws that keeps you from appointing them. If the bylaws include no age restrictions, then you can nominate and elect young people to your board. If the bylaws state an age restriction, you’ll have to change them (by a vote of the board, in most cases) before you can seat teen members.

There may also be a legal problem here. For full membership on many elective boards and commissions – most local school boards, for example – members must, by law, be of voting age.  This requirement may also apply to membership on boards and commissions that oversee government bodies or operations.  In such a case, youth could not be incorporated into a board as full members.  Laws vary from locality to locality, from state to state, and from country to country, so you may have to check to find out what’s possible for your board.

In Anchorage, Alaska, a 14-year-old sits as a full member on the Parks and Recreation Commission.  Appointed by the mayor as a result of an impressive public presentation she made, she has been accepted and mentored by the rest of the Commission, and is treated as an equal.  She takes her responsibility seriously, and makes sure that she reads and understands all the materials that relate to meetings and decisions, and stays up to date on issues that the Commission must address.  It takes both equal treatment on the part of board members and equal work and effort on the part of the young member for a youth to be a full member of a board.

Including youth as board members, but with some restrictions

Depending upon what your board deals with, or upon how ready most current adult board members are to welcome youth to the board, you might limit youth membership in some ways. They might not, for instance, be considered for board offices or committee chairmanships, or they might not be allowed to vote on certain issues.

Including youth in an advisory capacity

This role may be appropriate for youth in cases where, for legal or other reasons, you can’t include them as full voting members. Exactly what it entails depends on how you interpret “advisory.”  Some of the possibilities include:

• Non-voting board membership. This is often referred to as “youth representation,” or something similar. Youth act as board members in most ways, but they can’t vote or be officers or committee chairs.  They can discuss issues, make recommendations, propose actions, etc. They sit with the rest of the board at meetings, and are treated as equals except in the matter of voting.
• Advisory board membership. Youth sit on an advisory board, but are not included as members of the governing board.
• Limited participation.  Youth might be allowed to participate only in certain discussions, or only when asked. In some cases, they might not sit with the board.
• Observer role.  In this role, young people would be non-participants, and would be present only as a check on the accountability of the board, to protect youth interests, and to carry news of board proceedings and decisions back to their constituency.

Including youth as members on board committees, but not on the full board

Similarly, you can include youth in commissions appointed to study or address a particular issue over a limited time period. In these situations, the choices for involving youth are essentially the same as for board membership. Youth may be granted full membership, including voting power and the potential to be elected or appointed to positions of authority (chair, vice-chair, etc.)  They may be granted limited membership, or employed in an advisory role or as observers.

In the case of a commission, they may take part in research and be listed as authors on a final report or participate in developing and delivering recommendations, or they may have very little or no say in what the commission ultimately presents.

Real inclusion is just that.  If there are legal or other restrictions that the board has no control over, that can’t be helped.  Youth can nonetheless be given the broadest role possible under the circumstances.  In general, if you decide that you want and need youth participation in your effort, limiting it more than necessary generally will gain you little, and may cost you much.

Limiting participation can lead – usually accurately – to charges of tokenism.  That means using a youth member simply as a symbol of how broad-minded your board and its parent body are, without actually giving youth in general any say in what goes on.  That’s disrespectful not only of the youth member, but of the young people she represents, and devalues their opinions and abilities.  It deprives the board of the energy and new ideas that youth can bring to it, and makes it look hypocritical or – worse – contemptuous or afraid of the ideas that youth members might express.  It would be better not to invite youth to participate at all than to insult them with condescension.

Your board should discuss the issue of youth membership earnestly, and commit to welcoming youth to the board or committee to the extent possible before you decide to invite youth members to join.  Only then will you and they both get the full benefit of their participation.

If your organization, institution, or initiative is attempting to attract and/or serve youth in the community, the last thing you want is to be viewed as yet another bunch of hypocritical, clueless adults who try to gain youth support through insincere and self-serving actions.  Young people are even more alert than most adults to being slighted or conned.  If you’re trying to pretend you take them seriously without actually doing so, they’ll know it immediately, and you won’t find them receptive.

Why include youth on boards, committees, and other similar bodies?

It sounds like it might take some work with your board to get it to the point where it will accept youth members.  Why make the effort?  There are a large number of good reasons, both philosophical and practical, but there are challenges as well.

Benefits of youth board membership

Your board can gain insight into the youth perspective on issues and on its actions. 

No one person can speak for all those they represent, and one or two young board members can’t claim to know what every teen in the community thinks and feels about something. They can give their own perspective, however, and relay the feelings of those of their peers they’ve spoken to. They’re far more likely to have a window on the general attitudes of community adolescents than most adult board members are, and their information can help the board in making important strategic decisions about issues that affect youth or about involving them.

Youth can bring new and creative ideas.

The inexperience of adolescents can be a minus, but it can also be a plus. Because they come at problems and issues without a lot of preconceptions, youth may be able to look at them in new ways and with new ideas. They are often better at “thinking out of the box” than adults are, because their box is so much less well-defined – they’re not as strongly influenced by what they “know.”

Youth can inject new life into your board.

Young people are idealistic and energetic, and their freshness can bring passion and direction to a board that’s gone stale, or that has ceased to be (or never has been) excited or innovative.

Board membership can make youth more conscious of and knowledgeable about community issues and the larger factors that affect their – and others’ – lives.

By including youth on your board you’re helping to build community capacity for the future.

Youth board membership makes your group more inclusive and participatory.

Having a mix of ages, genders, backgrounds, etc. that reflects the whole community often leads to better decisions, grounded more strongly in reality, than does having a less diverse group making decisions that have consequences for the whole community.

Having adolescent board members is more likely to convince community youth to participate in your organization or support your positions

If youth know that they’re honestly represented and that their concerns are considered, they’re much more apt to buy into and support your decisions than if decisions are made for them without their input.

By including youth on your board, you’re making a statement to the community about their importance and about their ability to contribute.

Particularly if you’re an organization that serves youth and/or addresses youth issues, it’s important to let the community know that you believe in young people.  By inviting them to join your board and giving them responsibility, you’re demonstrating your integrity, and showing that you’re not just paying lip service to the idea of youth capacity.

As a result of their interactions with youth board members, adults on the board may develop more positive attitudes toward young people.

Seeing adolescents performing well when they’re given responsibility will make these board members, who may have been skeptical initially, stronger advocates for youth in the community.

An actual example from a slightly different context:

Dave, a local Lions Club officer engaged in helping to set up a summer fair and carnival at the high school, looked down the street and saw a group of youth approaching in full Goth regalia – piercings, all-black clothes, leather dog collars, spiked and dyed hair.  His reaction was “Here comes trouble,” but they paid for their admission, and there was no reasonable excuse for keeping them out.

Later in the afternoon, a thunderstorm arose suddenly, with pelting rain and violent winds.  Tent supports began to give way, and Dave, who was in charge of the event, rushed to try to control the damage.  If the big tents broke loose, people could be injured or worse.  As he struggled with a tent, he realized that he had help.  All the Goth teenagers had immediately sprung into action to help, tying down tents, calming frightened fairgoers, and generally taking charge of the situation.  Let Dave tell the rest:

“I thought to myself, how stupid was I?  If I’d tried to keep those children out, anything could have happened. I judged them without knowing them, and I realized I do that all the time.  It’s just plain wrong.  I’ll never do that again, and I tell this story every time I get the chance, so other people won’t do it either.”

You can increase the credibility of your group, both among youth and in the community in general, by acting on your principles.

If you’re a grassroots organization or initiative, having a diverse board that includes youth membership is likely to be consistent with your philosophy.

That kind of consistency is extremely important, especially if inclusiveness or youth empowerment are among your goals.

You’re encouraging youth leadership and developing the next generation of community leaders.

Challenges to youth board membership

It’s clear that there can be great benefits to inviting young people to join your board.  As with many benefits, however, there may be accompanying challenges as well. Most can be overcome, but it’s important for a board to understand what it might need to deal with in the interests of gaining a youth voice.

Youth may need help with meeting skills. As with some adult board members, youth may not have experience with meeting etiquette, rules of order, how to follow the flow of discussion, etc.  They may need time, training, and perhaps mentors to bring them up to speed.

Most youth simply don’t have the background of knowledge and experience that most adult board members do. This can work as both an advantage and a disadvantage.  On the minus side, they may come in with biases or assumptions that are not based on fact (this can also be true of adult board members, but it’s somewhat more likely with adolescents), and may not start with the educational background and knowledge to understand some discussions that adult board members take for granted.

Young people may be hesitant about speaking out. Sometimes youth may need lots of encouragement before they’re comfortable enough to speak up and feel that their opinions are valued when they do.

Adolescents – even those that are generally quite mature – can be impulsive. They may express their emotion, disagreement, or anger in ways that most adults wouldn’t in a board setting.  Adult board members may need to be patient and understanding of the needs of youth members, and youth members may have to learn both to understand when their actions are inappropriate, and to control their impulses.

Incorporating youth members takes time. Board meetings may be less efficient and take longer until the youth members learn the meeting skills and gain the background of knowledge and judgment that will make them true peers.  With some, that will not take long at all – perhaps a meeting or two.  Others may take longer, and adult board members may have to be patient.

Adult board members may have to change their assumptions about what youth are capable of. That can take time, and may lead to conflict along the way.  It may be hard for some adult board members to take youth members seriously, and that can delay or derail those youth members being able to contribute to the extent that they’re able. On the other hand, if those attitudes change, those adults could become advocates for youth abilities in the community, and pave the way for youth taking responsibility in other circumstances as well.

While young people may be better advocates for the organization or initiative with other youth, they may have less credibility in the community with adults. None of these drawbacks are fatal, not all (or any) will necessarily apply to any given board, and resolving them can lead to positive outcomes above and beyond the advantages that youth board members bring.

When is a good time to add youth members or representatives?

As in so many Tool Box sections, the first answer to the “When...?” question is any time the need or desire arises. That’s usually not much help, however, and there are, in fact, a number of times when it’s particularly appropriate or necessary to add youth members to your board.

When you’re starting a new organization or initiative

This is especially true – but not limited to – organizations and initiatives that addresses youth and youth issues.

This will show your intent to take youth seriously, whether your effort is directly aimed at them or not, and will make it much easier over the long term to mobilize their energy and support.

By including them from the beginning, you can also help young board members better understand your group’s overall strategy and tactics, and keep them focused on the long term. Youth, in their passion, often make political errors by wanting to speak truth to power too loudly and in ways that are guaranteed to cause resistance rather than the possibility of collaboration.  If they’re part of a larger planning effort, they’re more likely to understand the reasons for being somewhat less confrontational.  On the other hand, if confrontation is the appropriate stance, having youth on your side can be a huge plus.

When youth are not responding well to a program or initiative aimed at them. They may see it as an effort by adults to make decisions for them, or to force them into molds or modes of behavior that they don’t like.  If they’re made part of the process, they’re more likely to take the program seriously and support it.

It’s always better to engage youth from the start of any effort; but if that’s not possible, involve them sooner, rather than later or not at all!

When youth board members are a condition of funding. If this is the case, it’s important to integrate them fully, and not recruit them just to fill a chair to satisfy the funder’s expectations.

When you need the youth perspective. You may realize that you’re missing important information or understanding about the youth population your organization or initiative is aiming at.  Including adolescents on your board may be one way to fill that knowledge vacuum.

When you want to demonstrate – to youth, to the community, and/or to your board – that you believe in the abilities of youth to take responsibility if they’re given the opportunity. One of the best ways to demonstrate that your commitment to this principle is sincere is to invite youth to help govern your organization, institution, or initiative.

When you want to empower a youth constituency. If a goal of your work is helping youth find and use their voice to influence the community and create positive change, you have to be consistent about giving them opportunities to do that in every sphere available. Not only including them on your board, but also encouraging their ideas and initiative are ways you can both show that you’re serious about involving them and give them a chance to learn and rehearse the kinds of roles you hope they’ll play in the larger community.

When you want to prepare youth to take community leadership positions. Young board members learn both the meeting skills referred to earlier and the strategic thinking and planning ability needed to take and effectively discharge leadership positions in the community, both in the near term and over the rest of their lives.

When members of the board request it. Board members may, whether for philosophical or practical reasons, or both, see a need to incorporate youth voices. It’s important to make sure that their vision extends to truly integrating young board members, involving them in decision- and policy-making, governance, and all the other activities of the board. Otherwise, youth membership will be mere window-dressing.

Who should be involved in including youth on boards and committees?

There are really two questions here. The first is “What kinds of organizations, institutions, and initiatives might include youth on their boards?”  The second is “Whom should you recruit as youth board members?”  We’ll look at each of these in turn.

Organizations, institutions, and initiatives that might include youth on their boards

These might extend across many sectors of society. There are limits, of course. Most corporations would probably feel no need for youth board members, and it’s likely that neither they nor young people in general would benefit from such membership.  Boards that are concerned with highly technical matters that demand specialized knowledge and educational background are another exception, as are those that call for a great deal of life experience. Nonetheless, there are many efforts and institutions that occupy important positions in the society that could greatly benefit both themselves and youth by including adolescents on their boards. Among them:

Educational efforts

• Local and state school boards
• Colleges and universities
• Private, alternative, and charter schools
• Adult literacy programs (many serve out-of-school youth)

Youth-oriented or youth-focused efforts

• Peer counseling and peer tutoring programs
• Recreational programs (teen centers, skate parks, sports leagues and programs)
• Prevention programs targeting risk behaviors (i.e., delinquency, violence, tobacco and substance use, suicide, adolescent pregnancy and STI prevention efforts)
• Service providers to youth experiencing homelessness or increased risk
• Service learning and youth community service programs

Community or larger-focused efforts that include youth as one of several targets or constituencies

• Community building efforts or organizations
• Health promotion or healthy community initiatives
• Health providers – hospitals, clinics, mental health centers
• Anti-poverty, anti-crime, or similar broad efforts
• Human service organizations
• State and local government agencies concerned with youth (legal restrictions may limit youth to a representative or advisory role on these boards)
• Employment boards

Young people who might be recruited as board members

Some boards may take it as obvious that the adolescents who should be sought are those who do well in school, demonstrate their maturity in a number of ways, are active in the community, etc., and that’s often true. On many boards, these are exactly the youth that are needed, and that will prove the board’s wisdom in drafting them.

That’s not the whole story, however. Some boards, particularly those of organizations that deal with youth experiencing increased risk, may want to recruit participants, both to encourage responsibility and leadership, and to demonstrate that these adolescents, regardless of personal problems or troubled circumstances, are capable of responsibility and leadership. The range, therefore, of potential candidates is relatively wide, excluding only those who are so antisocial or psychologically or intellectually disabled that they could not be expected to function in a board setting.  Some possible board members:

Those who are already active in sports, scouting, church groups, etc.

This generally encompasses the “good” children we just described, the ones that everyone likes and that will probably develop into well-adjusted, well-liked, financially and personally successful adults.

Youth with first-hand knowledge of the issues and population you’re concerned with.

• Current or former gang members
• Runaways or emancipated minors
• Youth who’ve been involved with the courts
• Youth with direct or close secondhand (through relatives or close friends) experience of the issue the organization deals with or with street life in general.
• Successful graduates of substance use programs
• Youth who have, or are working to, overcome academic difficulties or learning disabilities
• Youth who have experienced harm or have struggled with dysfunctional family situations
• Youth currently or formerly in foster care
• Adoptees
• Youth whose families have experienced homelessness
• Recipients of your services, participants in your program, or potential beneficiaries of your initiative

Youth who want to be involved, and/or who volunteer.

These children often make wonderful board members because of their strong interest, but be careful to ensure that they’re not already over-committed.

Youth with real leadership potential.

This category may include many of the active youth described above. But it also includes many (although by no means all) of the troublemakers who are respected by their peers for their ability to stand up for themselves and their beliefs, to argue with teachers and other authority figures, and to resist conforming. Some of these adolescents may end up wearing suits and sitting in corporate or law offices, but others may become the poets, artists, and trailblazing scientists who will lead the world in new directions. Don’t ignore them because a lot of adults find them difficult. If you can channel their energy and give them something to care about, they might amaze you.

How do you engage youth on boards and committees?

So...you’re convinced that inviting one or more young people to join your board might be a good idea. Now what?  How do you go about making it happen?

What follows is a set of suggested guidelines. It may not be the best for every situation, but –as with anything in the Community Tool Box – you’re invited to adapt and adjust it to fit your needs.  It should give you a fair start on inviting young people to join your board and making their membership successful for all concerned.

Decide whether you want youth members or representatives on your board

Not all boards can benefit by having youth membership, nor can all boards offer any benefit to young board members. We discussed earlier many of the reasons why you might want youth on your board.

Some reasons why you might not:

• Membership on your board requires specialized knowledge or a particular capacity (e.g., access to major donors) that youth aren’t likely to have.
• The majority of the board is firmly opposed to the idea.  It may be something you can do later, but it’s probably not a good idea right now.
• The great bulk of the board’s business is technical, essentially boring, and a youth member would add or receive little except her presence.
• The only reason you want a youth presence is to say you have it.  If the teen member is only a symbol, you’re indulging in tokenism, which, as we’ve explained, is bad for both the young member and for the board.

Be sure that it makes sense both for you and for any adolescents you might recruit as members for them to join your board. If it doesn’t, no one will gain anything from the experience, and it may cause serious problems.

Determine the niche you expect the young member(s) to fill

In other words, why do you want to bring them onto the board?  There are probably several reasons, and no two or more of the following possibilities are mutually exclusive.

• To provide a youth perspective
• To provide a voice for young people who will be affected by the board’s decisions
• To bring a deeper understanding of the youth-related issues you’re considering
• To increase your credibility with youth and the community
• To bring fresh ideas to the discussion
• To play a particular role
• Recruiting youth
• Modeling youth empowerment
• Spearheading and/or acting as spokesperson for a particular event, activity, or program
• Helping to train other adolescents
• Explaining the organization’s or initiative’s policies, programs, mission, etc. to other youth
• Helping with public relations as the “youth face” of the organization
• To train as future community leaders.  That means finding out how boards and organizations work, and learning the meeting, facilitation, listening, diplomatic, and other skills necessary to be engaged and active in the community, and to take on leadership when appropriate.

Every board member should know what their role is.  It should be something they’re willing and able to do well, and should reflect their talents, capacities, and preferences as much as possible.  Whatever the role, it should be – for youth as well as adult members – in addition to decision-making and other regular board functions.

Assess the readiness of your board to incorporate youth members

Readiness is not only a matter of attitude, but also of flexibility. You might want to ask yourself and the board some questions.

• What’s the attitude of board members toward youth?  Do they see young people as capable of fulfilling responsibilities in general, and of taking on board tasks and responsibilities in particular?  Can they treat youth as peers without condescension?
• Is the board willing to spend the time it will take to get youth members up to speed? Can they be patient as the adolescents learn how to function on a board, and will they supply information and support to make the process easier?  Are they willing to sacrifice some meeting efficiency in the service of letting young members get comfortable and make mistakes?
• Will board members be comfortable with meeting youth needs – having food and drink at meetings (something the Tool Box already recommends for almost all meetings of any kind), helping to provide transportation, adjusting meeting times to accommodate school and activity schedules?

Prepare as a board to accept youth members

There are some things you can do to make the transition easier for everyone.

• Discuss what’s going to happen, looking at any possibilities you can come up with. Be clear and honest about any adjustments board members may need to make, and about what they can expect to gain in return. The more information people have, and the fewer surprises they’re confronted with, the more comfortable the change will be.
• At the same time, work out ways to keep changes to a minimum, so the board’s routine will be disrupted as little as possible.
• Make any bylaw changes necessary to include youth members – age requirements, number of board members, etc. If you don’t already know, find out whether there are any legal restrictions on including youth as full board members, and decide how you’ll handle membership if there are.
• Discuss how you’ll train and support the new board members. What kind of training will they need, and who will provide it?  Now is the time to decide whether you’ll use mentoring, and to get commitments from as many board members as are needed. (One per youth member should be fine, meaning that you only need one or two volunteers.)
• Discuss how you will evaluate the experience to assure it’s working and meaningful for the board, organization and youth themselves.

Recruit youth board members

• Decide how many youth you want to recruit. It’s often a good idea to make sure that there’s more than one, so that a single teen member doesn’t feel isolated.  That could make it harder to integrate youth members into the board, but if other members make the effort to approach and include them, that shouldn’t be a huge obstacle.
• Find prospective board members.  In many ways, this is no different from finding and recruiting adult board members.
• Ask current board members for names of adolescents they know who might be good candidates.
• Make presentations and send notices to students and faculty at schools, youth groups, human service organizations, and others with contact with area youth.
• Talk to youth who are already active in the community, or involved as leaders in youth activities.
• Seek out youth who draw (positive) attention by their public actions. (Remember how the mayor of Anchorage found a young Parks and Recreation Commission member.)

Perhaps one of the most important characteristics to look for in any new board member, youth or not, is whether she fits in well with the rest of the board.  It’s much easier to get work done when everyone gets along and shares at least some elements of a world view.  If you’re all in unspoken agreement about the use of humor, the amount of work that needs to be done and your willingness to do it, the way you relate to other people, etc., it’s likely the board will be a good experience both for you and the new member.

As we’ve already mentioned, be careful not to look only at the “good children.”   What may at first seem an unlikely candidate may turn out to be someone who thinks extremely well, who’s serious about the issue, and who has simply been waiting for the right challenge to get him moving forward.  The rewards of finding a youth like that are great, both for him and for the board.

• Contact potential youth board members personally. This might be done by the Nominating Committee, by the Chair, or by a board member who has contact with the youth in question.

As with any potential board members, limit the number of adolescents you decide to contact.  If there are two places on the board, it makes sense to narrow the field to five or six before you actually start inviting people to become candidates.  That avoids spending a huge amount of time in meetings, and eliminates disappointment for all but a small number of possible board members.

• Meet with the potential board member (and with her parents, if that’s appropriate; an option is to meet with them separately.) Explain the organization or initiative and the board, including what the time commitment might be; answer her questions; and discuss whether she’d like to be considered for membership, if that’s appropriate.

If it seems obvious that the youth and your board aren’t a good fit, now is probably the time to discuss it.  The teen may not have the time, or may have little interest in the issues the board is concerned with.  If that’s the case, it’s a waste of time for both her and you to pursue membership further.

• Make your choices from among the available candidates.  Use the same procedure you use to choose other board members. For many boards, that involves a nominating committee finding and interviewing candidates, and making recommendations which are then voted on by the full board.  Whatever process you use, it might make sense to invite prospective members to attend meetings before choices are made, so that everyone can meet them and determine whether they and the board are a good fit.

In order to bring them into line with other board members’ terms of service, and to facilitate training (as well as to avoid singling them out), youth members should probably be recruited for and join the board on the same schedule as other board members.

Different boards have, of course, different ways of choosing members.  Alaska ICE suggests that a board might ask youth to apply, but that seems inappropriate if they’re being invited to be full board members, unless all potential members must apply.  It might make sense, however, if the adolescents are applying to be the youth representative on a school committee or similar body.  You’ll have to make that kind of decision based on your own situation.

If prospective youth board members are meant to represent a specific constituency or population, candidates (or actual board members) might be chosen by their peers. This could be particularly important if the population in question is a hard-to-reach one: gang members, children experiencing increased risk of not completing school, members of an underrepresented group that experiences discrimination (e.g., Untouchables in India), or children with a language barrier. The board could either accept those chosen by their peers as members, or, using the board’s regular process, select from among those chosen as candidates.

Train new youth board members

New youth board members should obviously receive whatever training any new board member gets. In addition, there are some areas that other board members may not need that youth members can benefit from.

• Meeting skills. Listening skills, when it’s appropriate to speak, board rules (Robert’s Rules of Order, for example, which many boards use), how votes work, homework, etc.

For some youth, a big part of this type of training may simply be encouragement to speak when they have something to say.  Some young people – by no means all – may feel that they simply haven’t the means to contribute, and may be intimidated by what they perceive as the amount of knowledge and expertise residing in the adults around them.  As they offer opinions and are listened to seriously, they’ll realize that their ideas are worthwhile, but they have to offer those opinions for that to happen.

• Handling and using disagreement and conflict.
• Organizational and board history.  New youth members should get copies of the vision, mission, policies, and any other printed material it’s important for the board to have, and be walked through them (as should any new board member.)
• Board culture – dress, how meetings flow, whether and how board members socialize with one another, both on and outside the board.
• Any necessary information about the issue, politics, etc. that they might not have, including previous issues the board has dealt with.
• Communication process – how to contact other members, and when that’s appropriate; how they themselves will be contacted.
• Vision, mission, and guiding principles of the organization or commission.
• Overview of organizational finances and budget.
• Any legal issues they might encounter.
• Board policies for confidentiality, dealing with the media, ethics, etc.
• If relevant, understanding funding/contracting procedures; becoming familiar with current grants and contracts.

Depending on your philosophy of board membership, many new adult members may need this type of training, too.  If that’s the case – or perhaps even if it’s not – you can avoid singling youth members out by simply providing the training for all new board members, not just youth.

This training doesn’t have to be overwhelming – no one picks up everything on the first hearing in any case – but it should be thorough enough to give new members the confidence to take part in discussion without feeling that they’re about to make fools of themselves.  They’ll probably be hesitant at first anyway, as most people are in new situations.  They should know that it’s all right to hang back for the first two or three meetings until they understand how things work, and get a better sense of the flow and content of the board’s operation.

Support youth board members

Youth may need some support, both in participating on the board and in getting to and from board and committee meetings. Some things boards can do to help:

• Establish a formal or informal mentor program.  Mentors act as resources for young members, providing information, shepherding them through new processes, and introducing them to other board members and people they should know.

As with training, adult board members may also need mentoring.  Some boards assign each new board member a mentor as a matter of course.  If you use a mentoring program for youth members, try to match personalities.  Mentoring will be much more effective if the people involved get along.

Don’t forget that mentors may need training and support as well.  Mentoring training could become part of your regular board training, and would give experienced youth board members a chance to act as mentors.

• Welcome youth board members. Individual board members should seek out youth members and establish relationships, just as they would with any new board member.  Include them in board and outside functions. For youth, this is doubly important, because it clearly sends the message that they’re being treated as equals, which will make it easier for them to feel comfortable and to participate.
• Help youth members understand and participate in the functioning of the board.  All members should work to make sure that youth members know the background of what’s being discussed, and should try to make them comfortable, so they can participate without self-consciousness.

If a youth member makes a serious mistake or does something that he doesn’t realize is inappropriate or counterproductive, don’t jump on it in public.  Rather, speak to him about it in private, explaining exactly why it was a problem.  Emphasize that everyone can make those kinds of mistakes, and suggest ways to avoid them in the future.  The tone should always be supportive, and based on the assumption that the error wasn’t intentional, and that the youth wants to learn how to work well with the rest of the board.

• Help youth members arrange transportation to and from meetings.  Often, they can ride with other board members who live in the same area.
• Be willing to rearrange board schedules to make it possible for youth to attend meetings. Obviously, this won’t work if it makes it impossible for others to attend. One criterion for youth membership might be whether candidates’ schedules mesh reasonably well with those of the board.
• Starting in the recruitment process, the board or committee chair can inform parents about why the board is recruiting their teenager, what her responsibilities will be, and what to expect as a result.

Employ youth board members

Young members should be given the same responsibilities as other board members. They should be asked to join one or more committees where they can use their skills and knowledge. As they become more comfortable with board work, and if they have the willingness and ability, they might be asked to co-chair or chair a committee, or to become a board officer. Their opportunities for responsibility should increase as their capacity increases.

Not all adult board members have the desire or the ability to be committee or board officers, and there’s no reason that all youth will, either.  You have to judge each individual separately.  One concern with youth, however, is to make sure that those who can take on increased responsibility also have the time.  Competent children are often over-scheduled, and it may be harder for them to say no than it is for adults in the same circumstances.

Youth members might be given assignments based on their talents or specialized knowledge. They might, for example, be able to acquaint the board with new ways to use technology, or to develop a technology plan for the organization.  They might be critical to devising a communication plan to reach youth in the community. Through networks that other board members don’t have access to, they may be able to establish contact with hard-to-reach populations, youth and otherwise.  (A young member who also volunteers at a soup kitchen, for example, may be able to reach people who are homeless much more easily than anyone else on the board.)

Make sure that you and everyone else on your board/committee takes youth board members seriously. Once they’ve gotten up to speed on the basics, they should be regarded in the same way as any other board member, not as “the kid.”  The chair or another board member should take board members to task (in private) if they don’t follow this practice.

By the same token, adolescents need to be held accountable to the same extent as any other board member.  They need to attend meetings regularly, to do the board work they agree to, and to contribute according to their ability. If they aren’t able or willing to discharge their responsibility, they should be treated as other members would be. You should find out why; they should, if it’s possible, be offered assistance and an opportunity to change the situation; and if that doesn’t happen, they should be asked to resign.  Equality, if it means anything, should work both ways.

Monitor and evaluate the experience

Get feedback from both youth members and others about their experience on the board. This could be done in a survey, in face-to-face interviews, or in discussion. A full-board discussion at the end of the process would probably help to get agreement on changes and adjustments that need to made.

Feedback from youth:

• Were they made to feel comfortable and welcome?
• Were they treated as equals?
• What did they initially hope to get or accomplish by being on the board?  Were those hopes fulfilled?
• Did they feel they were able to contribute?  In what ways?
• What have they learned?
• What have been the biggest challenges?  Could some of them have been prevented?  How?
• What was most helpful?
• What would they change to improve the experience?
• How would they rate their overall experience?
• What would they suggest to future youth members and to the board to make youth membership easier and more rewarding for everyone concerned?

Feedback from other board members:

• What was their initial attitude toward including youth on the board?  If their attitude now is different, why?
• What did they hope the board would accomplish by including youth?  Were those hopes fulfilled?
• How did they see young members’ contributions?  Did they add something the board would have lacked otherwise?  If so, what?
• What did they learn from having young people on the board?
• What were the biggest challenges?
• What was most helpful?
• What would they change to improve the experience?
• How would they rate the experience of including youth on the board?
• What advice would they give to adult and youth board members in the future?

Incorporate what you’ve learned from evaluation, and continue to include youth on your board

Use what you’ve found out from your evaluation to change whatever needs changing to make including youth a more positive experience all around  Improving your recruitment, using young people’s talents better, building more on personal relationships, providing better support – whatever you can do to make the transition to productive board membership will bring a big payoff to both you and the youth who become part of your board. The best indication of success is that, by the end of a year or so, the teen members of your board are simply viewed – by themselves and everyone else – as board members.  If that’s the case, you’ll know that both you and they have done your jobs well.

In Summary

For many nonprofit and public boards of directors, commissions, and committees, especially those concerned with or directly serving youth, including youth members can be extremely valuable.  By the same token, there are many young people whose idealism and desire to be of service, as well as their competence and willingness to assume responsibility, make them ideal board members. Combine these considerations with the advantages of multi-sector, diverse, and participatory community groups, and it would seem that including youth is an opportunity that many, if not most boards, commissions, and committees can’t afford to pass up.

Boards offer youth responsibility, leadership training, and the opportunity to make a significant contribution to the community. Adolescents, in turn, can bring boards enthusiasm, energy, fresh ideas, and a realistic perspective on community youth and youth-related issues. Particularly for boards that deal with young people, incorporating youth members is a win-win situation.

What do we mean by including youth on your board or committee?

___Including youth on boards, commissions, or committees means recruiting young people to serve as members or representatives on those bodies

___A Board of Directors is the formal governing body of almost all incorporated (and some unincorporated) non-profit organizations, initiatives, or institutions, and many public bodies as well

___A committee is a part of a larger organization or initiative, is formed to deal with a specific issue or area of functioning, or a freestanding body usually meant to address or oppose a particular issue

___A commission is a government body that has charge of a particular area of functioning, or a group appointed by government to study or oversee an event or issue

___Youth may be included on boards, commissions, or committees with full membership, with limited membership, in an advisory capacity, or as members of board committees, but not the full board

Why include youth on boards, committees, and other similar bodies?

___Your board can gain insight into the youth perspective on issues and on its actions

___Youth can bring new and creative ideas

___Youth can inject new life into your board

___Board membership can make youth more conscious of and knowledgeable about community issues and the larger factors that affect their – and others’ – lives

___Youth board membership makes your group more inclusive and participatory

___Having teen board members is more likely to convince community youth to participate in your organization or support your positions

___By including youth on your board, you’re making a statement to the community about their importance and about their ability to contribute

___As a result of their interactions with youth board members, adults on the board may develop more positive attitudes toward young people

___You can increase the credibility of your group, both among youth and in the community in general, by acting on your principles

___If you’re a grassroots organization or initiative, having a diverse board that includes youth membership is likely to be consistent with your philosophy

___You’re encouraging youth leadership and developing the next generation of community leaders

Challenges to including youth on boards:

___Youth may need help with meeting skills

___Most youth simply don’t have the background of knowledge and experience that most adult board members do

___Young people may be hesitant about speaking out, and may need lots of encouragement before they’re comfortable enough to feel that their opinions are valued

___Adolescents – even those that are generally quite mature – can be impulsive

___Incorporating youth members takes time

___Adult board members may have to change their assumptions about what youth are capable of

___While youths may be better advocates for the organization or initiative with other youth, they may have less credibility in the community with adults, especially those who are more conservative

When is a good time to add youth members or representatives?

___When you’re starting a new organization or initiative, especially – but not limited to – one that addresses youth and youth issues

___When youth are not responding well to a program or initiative aimed at them

___When youth board members are a condition of funding

___When you need the youth perspective

___When you want to demonstrate – to youth, to the community, and/or to your board – that you believe in the abilities of youth to take responsibility if they’re given the opportunity

___When you want to empower a youth constituency

___When you want to prepare youth to take community leadership positions

___When members of the board request it

Who should be involved in including youth on boards and committees?

___Educational efforts

• Local and state school boards
• Colleges and universities
• Private, alternative, and charter schools
• Adult literacy programs (many serve out-of-school youth)

___Youth-oriented or youth-focused efforts

• Peer counseling and peer tutoring programs
• Recreational programs (teen centers, skate parks, sports leagues and programs)
• Prevention programs targeting risk behaviors (i.e., delinquency, violence, tobacco and substance use, suicide, teen pregnancy and STI prevention efforts)
• Service providers to homeless and other at-risk youth
• Service learning and youth community service programs

___Community or larger-focused efforts that include youth as one of several targets or constituencies

• Community building efforts or organizations
• Health promotion or healthy community initiatives
• Health providers – hospitals, clinics, mental health centers
• Anti-poverty, anti-crime, or similar broad efforts
• Human service organizations
• State and local government agencies concerned with youth.  (Legal restrictions may limit youth to a representative or advisory role on these boards.)
• Employment boards

Young people who might be recruited as board members

___Those who are already active in sports, scouting, church groups, etc.

___Youth with first-hand knowledge of the issues and population you’re concerned with

• Current or former gang members
• Runaways or emancipated minors who live or have lived on the street
• Youth who’ve been involved with the courts
• Youth with direct or close secondhand (through relatives or close friends) experience of the issue the organization deals with or with street life in general
• Successful graduates of substance use programs
• Youth who have, or are working to, overcome academic difficulties or learning disabilities
• Youth who have been abused or have struggled with dysfunctional family situations
• Youth currently or formerly in foster care
• Adoptees
• Youth whose families have been homeless
• Recipients of your services, participants in your program, or potential beneficiaries of your initiative

___Youth who want to be involved, and/or who volunteer

___Youth with real leadership potential, including some who might be seen as “troublemakers”

How do you engage youth on boards and committees?

___Decide whether you want youth members or representatives on your board

___Determine the niche you expect the young member(s) to fill

___Assess the readiness of your board to incorporate youth members

___Prepare as a board to accept youth members

___Recruit youth board members

___Train new youth board members

___Support youth board members

___Employ youth board members

___Monitor and evaluate the experience

___Incorporate what you’ve learned from evaluation, and continue to include youth on your board

Example #1: Boston Student Advisory Council (BSAC)

 

The Boston Student Advisory Council (BSAC) is a citywide body of elected student leaders representing most BPS high schools. BSAC organizers work to identify and address pertinent student issues, thereby putting students at the center of the decisions that affect them the most. BSAC acts as the student union of the district, leading organizing efforts, forging relationships with district and city-leaders, impacting policy change, and transforming school culture across the board.

 

Example #2: The Power of an Untapped Resource

 

Exploring Youth Representation on Your Board or Committee. This booklet was created by an Alaskan student for any board that is interested in expanding the representation of their board, “growing their own” board members for tomorrow and/or empowering the youth in their community. From Native corporation boards, youth serving organizations and faith groups, state and local advisory councils, to the state school boards association, Alaskans are witnessing a trend – Alaskans are committed to working with youth.

 

Example #3: Children’s Mercy Teen Advisory Boards

Photo credit: Children's Mercy, Kansas City.

 

Children’s Mercy started the Teen Advisory Board with the goal of improving Children's Mercy for all patients - especially teens.

The purpose of TAB:

• To provide Children's Mercy with a patient advisory board representing various ages, backgrounds and communities.
• To give an opportunity for a representative group of patients to express concerns, ideas and suggestions.
• To have Children's Mercy staff listen and support the TAB.
• To give teen ideas to the Children's Mercy Hospital's Executive Vice President and Co-Chief Operating Officer.

Learn about accomplishments of the Teen Advisory Board. View the bylaws.

 

Example #4: Defining and Unpacking the Social Determinants of Health and Health Equity–A Culture of Health Webinar

The National Academy of Medicine (NAM) held the first webinar in its Culture of Health Webinar Series on November 29, 2018. The National Academies report Communities in Action: Pathways to Health Equity identified nine social determinants of health and how these determinants impact our health and the health of our communities. It features an example of actively engaging and supporting youth in advocacy efforts. The report also defines health equity as the state in which everyone has the opportunity to attain full health potential and no one is disadvantaged from achieving this potential because of social position or any other socially defined circumstance. Read more.

A PowerPoint presentation summarizing the major points in the section.

• What are contracts and memoranda of agreement?

• When might you use each document?

• How do you read and understand a contract or memorandum of agreement?

• How do you draft a contract or memorandum of agreement?

As you collaborate with other groups, employ consultants, or hire organizations to provide services to you or your priority population, you will often find it useful to "get it in writing". This section will help you to read, understand, and draft contracts and memorandas of agreement, the two kinds of documents that most organizations require in their relationships with others.

What are contracts and memoranda of agreement?

The greatest difference between a contract and a memorandum of agreement is that a contract is a legal document and is enforceable in court, whereas a memorandum of agreement is neither. We'll briefly examine each in turn, and look as well at places where the differences between them blur.

Contract

As stated above, a contract is a legal document. In its simplest terms, it is a statement of an agreement between or among two or more parties that involves an "exchange of value." There may be money involved, or there may be an exchange of goods, services, space, or some other commodity. If there's an agreement to provide something in return for something else, it's considered a contract.

In legal terms, a contract isn't enforceable without consideration, i.e. without something being offered in exchange for something else. In addition, the terms of the contract have to be clear enough so that a court can enforce it. If a contract says that one organization will pay another for "collaboration and support " on a program, that may not be specific enough to be enforceable. The court would have to have some proof that both parties knew exactly what "collaboration and support " actually referred to in order to enforce the terms of the contract.

A contract may or may not be written, although a written contract is both clearer and much more easily enforceable than a verbal one, since a written document makes it easier to prove that a contract agreement exists. It doesn't have to be labeled a contract, if it's clear that both parties intend it to be a formal document, and there's consideration involved. It can be extremely simple, as long as the intent is clear. (For the sum of $500.00, Fred Smith will paint the outside of John Jones 's barn, including all trim, window sashes, doors, and window and door frames and surrounds, with two coats of red paint.)

In health, human service, and community work, subcontracts are common. A subcontract is a contract used when an organization or individual that already has a contract to provide services or goods hires another to do some of the work under that contract. An organization that has a contract to conduct a comprehensive employment training program, for instance, might subcontract with an adult literacy program to provide basic skills to participants, or with a vocational school to provide certain kinds of job training.

Memorandum of agreement

A memorandum of agreement is not a legal document, and is not enforceable in court. In most cases, by calling a document a memorandum of agreement, the signers are showing that they don't intend to try to enforce its terms.

In health and community work, memoranda of agreement are usually used to clarify and/or specify the terms of a cooperative or collaborative arrangement involving two or more organizations. They may have to do, for example, with sharing space, with working together toward common goals, with each organization contributing something toward a common effort, or with agreements to serve on one another's boards.

The purpose of a memorandum of agreement might be to indicate good will on the part of both parties, or to help them keep track of what they've agreed on. The agreement may help to clarify the relationship between two organizations, and to make clear which services in the community each is responsible for.

Sometimes funders, in trying to promote collaboration, require memoranda of agreement with particular agencies or organizations to be submitted with funding proposals . These agreements, typically, state the commitment of the signer to work with the organization applying for funding in a specific way - referring participants, taking referrals, or serving on an advisory board, for example.

Gray areas

Although these definitions seem reasonably clear, there are a number of situations where the picture gets murky. If a memorandum of agreement involves an exchange for a sum of money, for instance, it will nearly always be considered a contract under the law. In addition, there are two other legal conditions under which a memorandum of agreement, or no formal agreement at all, can be treated as a contract.

• If one party takes a loss - in money, community standing, etc. - because the other agreed and then failed to do something, the first party may be able to sue .

Two organizations might sign a memorandum of agreement to collaborate on a program . One of them, on the basis of their agreement, spends grant money to set up the program, and then the other - without whose participation the program can't be run - backs out. The first organization may then be required to pay back the grant money, because it was spent on a program that never took place. In that case, even though there was no contract or exchange involved in the original agreement, the second organization might be forced by law to pay the first organization back...or it might not. It would depend on circumstances and the judge's opinion - that's why it's a gray area.

• If a particular exchange has become customary, whether or not there's actually a contract covering it, a contract may be assumed to exist.

A participant has been cleaning the offices of a nonprofit health clinic every month for over a year, and getting paid a regular amount - let's say $100.00 each time - for doing so. Then, out of the blue, one month he cleans the office, and the clinic director refuses to pay, saying she didn't ask him to clean. Under the law, he could probably argue that the clinic had created a custom of paying him for this service, and that a contract was implied by this custom. If the judge agreed, the clinic would have to pay him the $100.00 for the cleaning he had already done. (They wouldn't have to continue with his services, but they'd have to let him know that they didn't want him to clean anymore.)

When might you use each document?

There are times and circumstances when it's appropriate to use a contract, and others when a memorandum of agreement makes more sense.

Use a contract or subcontract:

Whenever money is involved

Even if the amount is small, it's important to have a contract, rather than a memorandum of agreement or no document at all. It's a reasonable guess that more professional partnerships, collaborations, and other organizational and individual relationships are ruined by money issues than by the next ten causes combined. The reason is often either that the parties have different interpretations of what is expected, or that one party simply ignores an understanding between the two that the other thought was cast in stone.

A contract shows:

• That the agreement is important.
• Exactly what everyone's expectations and responsibilities are.
• That there is a serious - and legal - obligation for all parties to fulfill the terms of the contract.
• That there is no leeway in what happens to the money. (If there is, that should be written into the contract as well.)

Some health and community service examples of contracts and subcontracts involving money:

• A funding agency contracts with an organization to provide a specific amount of a specific kind of service, either for a set total fee, or for a set fee per unit of service. (A unit could be an hour or other amount of time; each individual person served; a particular procedure, such as a blood pressure screening or a vocational aptitude test; a place in a program; etc.)
• A lead agency - i.e. an agency that receives a grant or contract directly from the funder - may subcontract with another organization to provide goods or services under the terms of a grant or contract awarded to the lead agency.
• An organization with a subcontract may in turn subcontract part of its work to yet another organization.
• One organization may simply hire another to provide services or goods, with no outside funding involved.
• Organizations may enter into a contract - a lease, for instance - where the commodity involved is the use of space, or the use of a name, trademark, or some other intangible item.
• An organization may hire an individual as a contractor to provide specific services .
• Organizations may enter into a contract governing the sharing of staff, if each is paying part of a staff member's time.

Situations involving a non-money exchange

Even if no money changes hands, it may be important to have a contract when two organizations are working closely together, and the success of their efforts depends on an exchange working smoothly. If each is performing service for the other's participants, for instance, or if one is using space in return for services, a contract can help assure that each organization fulfills its obligations.

In general, if the success of an effort is riding on this type of collaboration, and on each party fulfilling its responsibilities properly, a contract is probably in order. Remember, however, that a contract is only enforceable if it involves a clearly-defined exchange.

Use a memorandum of agreement:

To define a relationship between organizations that agree to do something jointly, or to provide something other than goods or services.

Some examples of things organizations might agree to:

• To provide members for each other's boards of directors.
• To refer participants to each other.
• To engage in or contribute to a particular activity, such as a comprehensive community assessment.
• To use the services of a particular organization if those services are needed (e.g., if a participant in your youth leadership program needs a vocational assessment, you'll send them to the local community economic development program to get it, rather than somewhere else.)
• To provide support (referrals, publicity, materials, etc.) for a new or ongoing program or initiative.

To agree to affiliate in a particular way

This may encompass some of the activities described above, but may also entail a more formal agreement to combine some elements of your organizations, or to work together in specific ways.

For example, if one organization, at the request of a funder, agreed to act as the money pass-through for another organization that hadn't yet received its federal tax-exempt classification. The first organization would simply request money from the funder at appropriate intervals and hand it over to the second. In this type of situation, it is wise to draft and sign a memorandum of agreement describing exactly how this arrangement would work.

To agree to share something

This may be space or equipment, or may cover the long-term loan of furniture or equipment.

To agree to work together in specific ways, or to collaborate if the opportunity arises

Service providers might agree to engage in shared training or staff development, for example, or to look for mutual funding opportunities.

For example, a diverse group of organizations, including a women's crisis center, a senior services organization, an adult literacy program, a community-run theater, a family-planning program, and a youth services provider came together to look for funding opportunities that might involve two or more of them. Their purposes were to generate creative programs, and to find new and different sources of funding for all the organizations. They drafted a memorandum of agreement detailing their relationship, and describing how they would search for joint funding and how joint funding might work in different circumstances.

How do you read and understand a contract or memorandum of agreement?

It's at least as likely that your organization will be on the receiving end of a contract, or be asked to sign an already-drafted memorandum of agreement, as that you'll write one. Before we discuss how to draft one of these documents, we'll look at how to read one.

Reading a contract

Most of the contracts that nonprofit organizations are asked to sign come from funders. You've probably had no input whatsoever into a funder's contract. If the funder is a branch of government or a public institution, the contract is probably standard, long, in very small print, and full of legal language ("legalese" is the term often used for this lawyers' version of English). You may be intimidated at first, but if you follow a few simple rules, you can make sure that signing a contract won't make you sorry later.

Read every word carefully.

Your parents probably told you never to sign anything without reading it, and they were right. Don't assume it's all just jargon, or that you know what's there because you and the funder have talked about it. Never, ever sign anything that you haven't read and understood completely.

Especially in the kind of long, small-print, standard contract mentioned above, there are often important conditions buried in odd places. Many public funders require that you keep any records having to do with the contract for a certain length of time, usually five years. Under the terms of the contract, they can ask for those records at any time during that period, and if you can't produce them - particularly if you can't prove that you spent the money the way you said you did - you may be required to return the funds! It's important to be sure you understand all the terms of the contract, not just those that apply specifically to the services you'll deliver.

As you read, make sure you understand each point or condition before going on to the next. Take notes on each point in your own words, so you'll have a clear and understandable outline of exactly what you're committing to if you sign.

Don't be frightened or put off by legal language.

It may look like gibberish, but most of it is in fact understandable if you slow down and look at it carefully . Most funders' and large organizations' or institutions' contracts are dense, but the points they make and the conditions they set often aren't that complicated.

Become familiar with standard clauses and phrasing that you're likely to see in a number of contracts.

The person or organization receiving the contract - i.e . you - is usually referred to as the contractor, for instance. That definition may or may not be presented at the beginning of the document. You'll find that certain clauses - those describing how either side can withdraw from the contract with proper notice, for example - come up in many of the contracts you see. All contracts from state agencies may have some of the same clauses in them (that requirement to keep your records for five years, for instance). The more familiar you get with these standard conditions, the easier it gets to read a contract.

If you have any trouble understanding any part of a contract, ask for clarification or help.

The funder should be able to explain clearly anything you don't understand . If the funder is not helpful, or if you'd rather get a second opinion, find a lawyer, a veteran director of an organization, or someone else with knowledge and experience to go over the contract with you and explain whatever you don't understand. (That 's one reason why many nonprofits and community-based organizations have lawyers on their boards.)

Be sure you agree with, or at least can live with, all the conditions of the contract before you sign it.

As you read a contract, you should continually be asking yourself the following questions:

• Are all the conditions possible for your organization - i.e. can you carry them out as described in the contract? Can you do it in the time specified, for instance?
• Is anything in the contract dangerous to the functioning or the life of your organization? Will it cost you money you don't have? Does it put you in conflict with the principles of your organization, or require you to use a method you don 't believe in?
• Are the resources specified in the contract - funding or otherwise - adequate for you to be able to do the work? Is compensation adequate to pay for everything you have to do? If you have to spend the money first, then submit a bill to be reimbursed, can you handle the cash flow?
• Are there protections written in for you, as well as for the funder, in the case of disagreement, or charges of violating the contract?
• Are the restrictions and regulations, if there are any, reasonable and not disruptive to the overall operation of your organization? Are there limits on whom you can serve, for instance, that would make other parts of your work difficult?
• Is anything in the contract different from what you've been told previously?

If you have questions or problems about one or more points, don't be afraid to raise them before you sign.

Most contracts are negotiable, at least to some extent . If there's something that won't work for your organization, or that seems unfair or unnecessarily limiting, suggest an alternative that will work for you. Your organization is being offered the contract because the funder thinks you can do a good job. It 's reasonable to do everything you can to make sure that the funder's right.

Reading a memorandum of agreement

A memorandum of agreement generally looks different from a contract. It's probably not full of legalese, it's likely to be shorter, and it usually contains few, if any, conditions that aren't directly related to the agreement itself. As a result, it's often easier to read and understand than a contract.

Another major difference is that you may have input into a memorandum of agreement. It depends on the situation. If a funder asks applicants to include memoranda of agreement with other organizations with a proposal, for instance, the funder may also have a form or actual wording for that memorandum. If, on the other hand, you're entering into a previously-discussed agreement with another organization, you've probably worked out most of the details jointly already.

Although a memorandum of agreement may not be legally enforceable, it is a promise on the part of both parties to collaborate or otherwise work together in some way. It should be taken just as seriously as a contract, regardless of its legal standing. For that reason, just as with a contract, you need to be sure you understand and agree to all its terms before you sign it.

The guidelines for reading a memorandum of agreement are similar in many respects to those for a contract:

Read every word carefully.

No matter how good your relationship is with the other organization(s) involved, make sure you understand exactly what you're agreeing to.

If you have any trouble understanding any part of the agreement, ask for clarification or help.

As with a contract, ask the other party to explain anything that's not clear to you. If you're still not satisfied that you understand clearly, or if you're suspicious in any way, find a lawyer or other knowledgeable person you trust to help you.

Be sure you agree with, or at least can live with, all the conditions of the memorandum of agreement before you sign it.

As you read the document, you should continually be asking yourself the following questions:

• Are all the points reasonable?
• If you discussed the agreement previously, does it reflect what you expected and what you've already agreed to?
• Does the document address the situation or issue involved in a way you support ?
• Are any parties to the agreement - including you - promising anything they can 't deliver?
• Is everything in the agreement feasible - can you do it with the resources available, for instance, and within the necessary time frame?
• Are you being asked to agree to something that's damaging to your organization or against its principles?

If you disagree with any of the terms of the agreement, or have questions or problems with it, raise them before you sign.

Now's the time to negotiate if there 's anything you want to change.

How do you draft a contract or memorandum of agreement?

We've looked at what you need to know about contracts and memoranda of agreement if you're the contractor or if you're signing on. What if you're the funder or employer, or if you're the organization asking others to enter into a memorandum of agreement? In those cases, you'll need to know how to draft the document, and to make sure that it says exactly what you want it to.

What follows applies in general to relatively small organizations that aren't using lawyers to draft contracts. (Larger organizations - educational institutions, state agencies, foundations, etc. - if they require contracts, almost always have a standardized form for them, written by the organization's lawyer or legal department, in legalese, protecting them from anything and everything, including acts of God. If you have the legal help available, you may want to do the same.)

The Tool Box is assuming here that most smaller organizations, whether they're drafting contracts or agreements, will have discussed the terms already with the contractor(s) or signer(s), and that there will be no surprises for anyone in the final document. This type of open, collaborative process makes life easier for everyone, and increases the chances that the terms of the contract or agreement will be fulfilled.

Contracts

Drafting a contract is essentially a logical, step-by-step process. You don't necessarily need a lawyer, and the contract doesn't have to be written in legal language: it just needs to be absolutely clear. Try to write in plain English, and to be as specific as you can about absolutely everything that you expect.

As a general rule, you won't go wrong by being too detailed. The trick is not to restrict the activity so much that no innovation or flexibility is possible. The contract shouldn't be seen as an opportunity to micromanage, but should at the same time be specific enough so that all parties do what they're supposed to do, and that each side has some recourse if there's a problem.

If you don't think you're logical enough or a good enough writer to draft a contract properly, find someone else in your organization to work with you - a board member who's a lawyer, perhaps, or someone who's had more experience with contracts than you have. It's worth the trouble to come up with a document that says what it means and covers all the possibilities.

Explain who the parties to the contract are, and the time period that the contract covers.

Use the legal names of the organizations, businesses, or individuals involved.

Example:

"In this document, the Portersburgh Youth Development Initiative contracts with the Portersburgh Youth Center, Inc. to provide the following services in the period July 1, 2001 to June 30, 2002 (Fiscal Year 2002):..."

Make sure to include everyone and every organization with whom you're contracting directly. If you know that a contractor is going to subcontract all or part of its work, that doesn't go here. It's between the contractor and subcontractor. (You might make an exception if you specifically want the contractor itself to do the work, or are only willing to accept certain subcontractors.)

Explain the arrangement as specifically as possible on both sides.

Include what the scope of services, products, or other exchange is, who is to be involved, how it is to be accomplished, when it is to be done (the time frame for the contract), and where it will take place, if that is relevant. Set out exactly what the contractor is expected to do . If there's a service involved, for instance, the description of services should include, where appropriate:

• Exactly what the services are, including any particular methods or features that are expected to be used
• The priority population
• The minimum and/or maximum number of people to be served, if appropriate
• The staff-to-participant ratio
• How often, for how long each time, over what period of time, and when the services will be delivered

For example:

"Provision of leadership development training for no fewer than 30 young people ages 14–20 experiencing increased risk per calendar year. This training will include, but not be limited to, early -evening courses (using attached curricula) in problem-solving, conflict resolution and mediation, and interpersonal communication. Each course will be limited to no more than ten (10) participants per instructor, and will encompass at least six (6 ) two (2)-hour periods of instruction, discussion, and practical application (12 hours altogether). In addition, training will include, for each trainee, a minimum fifteen (15) hour supervised practicum, in one of the course areas of the trainee's choice, after completion of all coursework."

Other areas might be included if they're important to you, or some of those included could be left out if they're up to the contractor. Recruitment strategies are left out of the example in the box above, for instance, on the assumption that the contractor will find 30 participants in its own way. If the times of the courses were dependent on when participants were available, you wouldn't write specific times into the contract, but you might include that times would depend upon participants' schedules.

If there's money involved, explain the details of payment.

These details will probably include:

• The total amount of payment in the contract - either an exact amount, or a range, with a maximum.
• How payment is determined - a lump sum, or so much per unit (per hour, per person, per treatment, etc.), or payments for each program milestone, etc.
• How the contractor may request payment. Possibilities include all at once; monthly or quarterly; or as reimbursement for money spent.
• How the request for payment is documented. In some cases, you may want a form specifying what has already been spent, or exact documentation of spending (receipts for purchase of materials or equipment, tally of hours of service, etc.)
• The reporting obligations of the contractor - documentation of spending, financial reports, copies of its annual audit, a final report on the grant at the end of the year, etc.
• Your obligations as funder - timely payments, for instance.
• Exactly what money can be used for, and the conditions under which the use of the funding can change - negotiations, approval of a change of direction, budget change requests, etc.

Explain any other obligations of each party.

There may be any number of other obligations that you or the contractor care about.

Some common contract obligations include:

• Acknowledgment of the funder or the contractor in any publication by the other about the work
• Acknowledgment of the funding source in any public communication by the contractor about the funded activity
• Demand for, or limitations on, the use of either party's official name or logo
• The publication rights of any results arising from the funded activity
• The ownership of particular methods, products, or findings resulting from the funded activity
• The timeliness of particular activities (starting participant recruitment early enough to start the program by a certain date, for instance)
• Staff composition (people from underrepresented groups, speakers of particular languages, etc.)
• Political neutrality
• The use of particular space, or a particular kind of space
• Responsibility for public relations and advertising

Explain how the contractor's performance will be evaluated.

The standard for success might be the number of people served, specific results (none of the youth served in trouble with the police while enrolled in the program), delivering the promised goods on time and undamaged, etc. If evaluation is important, it should be written into the contract, along with who will perform it. (Will you pay for an outside evaluator? Is a self-evaluation acceptable?)

For example:

Performance will be considered satisfactory if:

• Services are delivered for at least 46 weeks in the fiscal year.
•  At least 25 youth, of the 30 proposed, are actually served.
•  At least 20 complete all coursework, with average attendance rates of 75% or better.
•  At least 16 complete a supervised practicum.

Explain the consequences if either party fails to deliver on what it has agreed to.

In general, unsatisfactory performance in itself, assuming that the contractor put in a good faith effort to fulfill the terms of the contract, is not a failure to deliver. You may choose not to fund that person or organization again, but if it did the work, you probably won't refuse to pay.

But what if it didn't do the work, or didn't do the work in the agreed-upon time frame? What if it spent the money on something else, or simply failed to follow through on some or all of the program it promised? By the same token, what if it did the work, and then you didn't have the money to pay?

Contracts have to be clear about what happens in these kinds of situations.That way, everyone knows beforehand what the consequences are, and - if the worst happens, and you end up in court - the law will be clear as well.

For example:

"If the contractor fails to conduct the program, or spends the money in ways not agreed upon, it may be required to return any money paid to it for this service, or to return that portion of the funds spent in unapproved ways."

(The "may" in the sentence above is intentional. It gives the funder some leeway in deciding whether to force the return of the money, or to negotiate some other option with the contractor.)

Explain the conditions under which the contract can be ended ("terminated" is the official term) by either side.

Most contracts contain a clause explaining that either side can decide to terminate the contract without specific cause with a certain amount of notice, usually 30 days. In addition, there are often conditions under which one side or the other can terminate the contract immediately, or almost immediately, for specific reasons. These usually include non-performance of the terms of the contract, misspending the money, inability or failure to pay on the part of the funder, and similar circumstances that would prevent the fulfillment of the agreement.

Termination clauses also may include an explanation of what happens to any remaining money if the contract is cut short early. Depending upon the circumstances, the funder might ask that all money be returned (if the money seems to have been misspent, for instance), or that only the unspent portion of the money be returned.

For example:

"Either party may terminate this contract on thirty (30) days' notice without specific cause.

"The contract may be terminated by [name of funder] on three (3) days' notice for the following reasons:

• Failure of the contractor to perform the services or deliver the goods called for in the contract
• Illegal or unacceptable activity [such as discrimination] on the part of the contractor
• Misuse of contract funds
• Inability of the parties to negotiate a mutually acceptable resolution to a dispute over the terms of the contract or the conduct of the activity specified in the contract

"The contract may be terminated by [name of contractor] on three (3) days' notice for the following reasons:

• Non-payment of contract funds
• A substantive change in the contract scope of work, making it impossible or extremely difficult for the contractor to carry out the contracted activity as specified
• Inability of the parties to negotiate a mutually acceptable resolution to a dispute over the terms of the contract or the conduct of the activity specified in the contract"

The "inability to negotiate a resolution" clause here could be tricky. How long do you have to try to negotiate before you throw in the towel? And to what lengths do you have to go before you've made a good-faith effort? Do you have to call in an outside mediator, for instance? These kinds of questions make the need for complete clarity all the more obvious.

Explain the conditions under which the contract can be changed ("amended" is the technical term in this case).

This may be as small an issue as changing a budget item (which you may already have a procedure for in the contract - see above), or as large as changing the whole substance of the activity the contract covers. In general, such changes should require the agreement of both parties, and some negotiation should probably be built in.

Some changes can be built into the contract. If you trust the contractor as an expert in the area in which it works, you might specify that it can determine the best course of action to complete the terms of the contract, and that it can change that course if it sees some reason that its original plan isn't likely to succeed . You might allow a contractor to spend money in whatever way it sees fit, as long as the money is dedicated to the activity of the contract.

In general, however, any major changes in the contract need to be discussed and approved by both parties, and the contract needs to be rewritten to reflect those changes. Otherwise, you might end up with something far different from what you wanted and expected when you first drafted the document.

When you've finished, show the contract to others to ensure its accuracy.

It's particularly important to include those who were involved in initial discussions with the contractor - to see if it says what you intend it to, and if it covers clearly all the specifics that you want to address.

Give the contract to the contractor, and be prepared to negotiate some parts of it.

Negotiations aren't negative: they're meant to assure that all parties are satisfied with the contract that they eventually sign, and that the contract activity will take place the way they all want it to. Remember also that, even after the contract is signed, it can be changed if both parties agree.

Memoranda of agreement

Since it's not a legal document, and usually doesn't involve money or another exchange, a memorandum of agreement allows a bit more leeway than a contract. On the other hand, the more specific you can be, the better, for a number of reasons:

• The more everything is spelled out, the less confusion about what you're agreeing to.
• Being specific helps to avoid misunderstandings, which can escalate into bad feelings and enmity where there was originally trust and collaboration.
• Clarity in an agreement provides an outline for your work or activity. You can use the memorandum of agreement to guide you in what you actually have to do.
• A clear agreement reflects the clarity of everyone's expectations. If you can draft a clear and specific memorandum of agreement that everyone accepts, your enterprise will probably succeed, because all the participants are in harmony.

Drafting a memorandum of agreement, then, is much like drafting a contract, with the exception that the terms of the agreement will probably have been discussed by all the parties beforehand. Most memoranda of agreement are no more than attempts to state clearly in writing what the parties have already worked out and agreed to in meetings. Where that's not the case, the parties will usually discuss the already -drafted memorandum and work out any differences before it's signed.

A memorandum of agreement, as explained earlier, isn't a legal document and won't stand up in court. You can't use it - except morally - to hold another organization to what it's promised. But you can use it as a guide, a reminder, a spur to action.

The Tool Box recommends that you approach drafting it in just the same way you approach drafting a contract. This reduces misunderstanding or unintended breach of the agreement, and makes everyone feel secure that they haven't promised anything that will harm their organization, or that will subject them to expectations they haven't previously known about.

In Summary

When you need to "get it in writing," the options are usually a contract or a memorandum of agreement.

A contract is a legal document, enforceable in court, that governs a relationship involving "consideration" - an exchange of money or some other commodity for goods, services, or something else of value. A subcontract is a contract between a contractor (an organization or individual directly paid or funded to perform a service or deliver a product) and another organization or individual the contractor pays to provide part of the service or product in question.

A memorandum of agreement is not legally enforceable, but describes the terms of an agreement between or among two or more parties to cooperate or collaborate in some way. These agreements don't involve an exchange - if they did, they'd be contracts .

A contract or subcontract should be used in any relationship involving an exchange, particularly one involving money. A memorandum of agreement is more appropriate in situations relating to organizations collaborating on a service, agreeing to refer participants to one another, offering mutual support, or engaging in an activity together.

In reading a contract, try to follow these guidelines:

• Read the whole document carefully
• Don't be put off or frightened by legal language
• Learn the standard phrases and conditions you're likely to find in a number of contracts, particularly those from public funders
• If you don't understand something, ask for clarification from the writer of the contract, and/or check with a lawyer or other knowledgeable person you trust to make sure you know what you're signing
• Be sure that the terms of the contract are acceptable to you, and don't involve promising something you can't do, or threaten damage to your organization
• Negotiate any questionable points before you sign

The guidelines for reading a memorandum of agreement are essentially the same. These are usually not written in legal language, and may be quite simple, so reading and understanding them may be much easier. Even though it's not a legal document, a memorandum of agreement is a promise, and should be treated by signers in the same way as a contract: you should consider yourself bound by it, and, if you sign it, you should make every effort to carry out its terms.

The touchstone for drafting a good contract or memorandum of agreement is absolute clarity about everything the document covers. In the case of a contract, that means describing exactly the who, what, how, when, and where of the exchange, as well as:

• The specifics of payment
• Any other obligations or conditions attached to any party
• Evaluation of the contractor
• Termination of the contract by any party for cause or without cause
• Anything else that's important to either party

If the contract is to stand up in court, its expectations have to be clear enough to be enforced. (It's a good idea to work out the contract details with the contractor, if that's possible. That way, it's much more likely that the contract terms will be both feasible and acceptable, and the chances that the result will be exactly what's desired are much higher.)

Drafting a memorandum, as with reading one, is usually a lot simpler than drafting a contract. The Tool Box recommends, however, that you approach the process in the same way, aiming for as much clarity and specificity as possible. That way, there will be no misunderstandings or bad feeling about what the agreement includes. This result is even more probable if you and other parties to the agreement draft it together.

If you can follow these guidelines, your contracts or memoranda of agreement - whether you're the one who's writing them or the one signing on - have an excellent chance of achieving the results you hope for.

What are contracts and memoranda of agreement?

___You know that a contract or subcontract is a legal document that sets out the terms of an exchange of value.

___You know that a memorandum of agreement is not a legal document, and that it describes a previously agreed upon arrangement for cooperation, collaboration, mutual support, or the like among individuals or organizations.

When might you use each document?

___You use a contract or subcontract whenever money is involved, or where there 's some other exchange of one commodity for another.

___You use a memorandum of agreement to clarify the relationships between or among two or more cooperating or collaborating individuals or organizations.

How do you read and understand a contract?

___You read every word of the document carefully.

___You don't allow yourself to be intimidated by legal language.

___You familiarize yourself with standard phrases and clauses that you might see in a number of contracts.

___You get an explanation - from the writer of the contract and/or from an attorney or other person whose advice you trust - if there's something you don't understand or have questions about.

___You make sure that the terms of the contract are acceptable by asking yourself:

• Whether everything in it is feasible.
• Whether all the conditions are possible for your organization.
• Whether anything in the contract is dangerous to the functioning or the life of your organization.
• Whether the resources specified in the contract - funding or otherwise - are adequate for you to be able to do the work.
• Whether there are protections written in for you, as well as for the funder, in the case of disagreement, or charges of violating the contract.
• Whether the restrictions and regulations, if there are any, are reasonable and not disruptive to the overall operation of your organization.
• Whether anything in the contract is different from what you've been told previously.

___You negotiate about the points that you want to change before you sign the contract.

How do you read and understand a memorandum of agreement?

___You read every word carefully.

___You get help in understanding anything that isn't clear.

___You make sure the terms of a memorandum of agreement are acceptable by asking yourself:

• Whether all the points are reasonable.
• Whether it reflects what you expected and what you've already agreed to.
• Whether the document addresses the situation or issue involved in a way you support.
• Whether any parties to the agreement - including you - are promising anything they can't deliver.
• Whether everything in the agreement is feasible - doable with the resources available, for instance, and within the necessary time frame.
• Whether you are being asked to agree to something that's damaging to your organization or against its principles.

___You negotiate about any points you want to change before you sign the agreement.

___You treat the memorandum of agreement as a promise that needs to be honored just as if it were a contract.

How do you draft a contract?

___You make both the language and the content of the contract as clear and specific as possible.

___You explain who the parties to the contract are, and the time period that the contract covers.

___You explain, as specifically as possible, what the scope of services, products, or other exchange is on both sides; who is to be involved; how it is to be accomplished; when it is to be done (the time frame for the contract); and where it will take place, if that is relevant.

___If there's money involved, you explain the details of payment.

___You explain any other obligations of each party.

___You explain how the contractor's performance will be evaluated.

___You explain the consequences if either party fails to deliver on what it has agreed to.

___You explain the conditions under which the contract can be ended by either side.

___You explain the conditions under which the contract can be changed.

___When you've finished, you show the contract to others - particularly those who were involved in initial discussions with the contractor - to see if it says what you intend it to, and if it covers clearly all the specifics that you want to address.

___You give the contract to the contractor, and are prepared to negotiate some parts of it.

How do you draft a memorandum of agreement?

___You work out the agreement beforehand with the other signees, so there are no surprises.

___You make both the language and the content of the agreement as clear and specific as possible.

___You draft a memorandum of agreement in the same way, and with the same care, that you would draft a contract.

A PowerPoint presentation summarizing the major points in the section.

• Why should you develop guidelines for hiring, orientation, and training?

• How do you develop guidelines for hiring staff?

• How do you develop orientation and training guidelines?

Hiring the right people and training them properly are the most effective ways to ensure the success of your organization. In this section, you will learn how to develop guidelines for the hiring and training process, while later sections in this chapter discuss how to use those guidelines to design a position and hire and train the best person to fill it.

Why should you develop guidelines for hiring, orientation, and training?

Why do you need to establish guidelines for hiring, orienting, and training staff? Why can't you just hire people and get going, and encourage them to learn on the job? There are a number of reasons why it's important to think carefully about what you're doing before you hire and train staff.

• The ways people are hired and trained constitute their first impressions of the organization, and will contribute to how they feel about it over the long term, and to how good a job they do.
• Developing guidelines will make you think about your plan and philosophy for the organization. Your hiring and training guidelines should reflect what you want the organization to be.

An organization that sees itself as democratic or dedicated to empowerment might run a hiring process that gives applicants a chance to act naturally and show their true strengths, rather than to have to respond to pressure or intimidation. It might also involve members of the priority population, other staff, etc. in the actual hiring, in order to reflect its inclusive philosophy.

• Having a clear set of guidelines to follow simply makes the hiring and training processes -- which are often time-consuming and difficult -- much easier and less stressful for all concerned.
• It's important to have clear guidelines to show funders, potential employees, the community, etc. Developing guidelines accomplishes two purposes: it shows you've done your homework, and that you're a serious organization; and it protects you in case of an accusation of discrimination or a lawsuit by a rejected applicant.
• Life is full of surprises, not all of them pleasant. The better prepared you are, the fewer surprises you'll encounter, and the easier your life and that of your organization will be. Staff hiring and training are two of the easier things in life to prepare for.
• Most important, good hiring guidelines make it more likely that you'll be able to find and hire the right person for the job; and good orientation and training guidelines will help them do the job as well as they can, and enjoy it more as well.

How do you develop guidelines for hiring staff?

In developing guidelines of any sort for an organization, the first question that needs to be asked is who will work on them. As with so much else, the answer should reflect how the organization sees itself, although it will also depend on its stage of life. (Hiring staff for the first time, at the startup of an organization, is somewhat different from filling ongoing positions that have gone vacant, or hiring for a new position in an established organization.) Will participants be involved? Other staff? Board members? The community? Or will the guidelines be the work of one person?

Once you've determined who's going to work on the guidelines, that person or group needs to consider a number of issues.

• What kind of people do you want as staff members? You may have a number of criteria, and those may involve the applicants? skills, their personal qualities, their commitment to or passion for your issue, and/or their demographic characteristics (you may be looking for someone who will blend in with the priority population, or you may be trying to attain a certain level of staff diversity).

• What can you afford? Will positions be full time or part time? Will there be benefits of some sort, particularly health, and do people get some portion of them regardless of how many hours they work? Are you willing to pay more for someone you really want, or for specific skills or experience?
• What will the hiring process look like? You need to consider who (not individuals, but segments of the organization and/or the larger community ) will be involved, and at what points in the process. Who screens applications, who does interviewing, etc.? Other major issues in hiring are:
  • The drafting of job descriptions and selection criteria. Who will be involved in coming up with a final job description and in deciding what standards will be used for deciding who best can carry it out?
  • The format of the application and interview process. What kind of impression do you want to make on applicants, and how does that fit with your organization's view of itself?
  • The timeline. When does the hiring have to be finished, and have you allowed enough lead time for that to happen? (You can always rush things, but the results might not please you in the long run.)
  • Where are you going to find candidates? What kind of advertising of the job will you do, and where? And what do you need to include in the advertising in order to be legal (AA/EEO, for instance)?
  • How many good candidates do you want to interview, and how will you decide who gets an interview? Who will read and make decisions on application materials? How many levels of this kind of screening do you want to do?

• How many stages of interviews do you want to do? One? Two? How much time will interviewers have to spend on this process, and do they have that time?
• How will you actually choose and notify the successful candidate? What's your procedure if they don't accept?
• How will you inform the other applicants once you've hired somebody?
• Will there be a contract or some other form of agreement with the new staff person? Will there be a probationary period? If so, how long will it be, and how will it (or the staff member, if they don't work out) be terminated?
• How will the hiring process be evaluated, and how will new ideas for improving it be incorporated into the guidelines?

If your guidelines touch on all the above questions, you'll have laid out the general shape of the hiring process for your organization. That process, if you've thought carefully as you've developed the guidelines, should demonstrate the kind of organization you want to be, and should be consistent with your mission, philosophy, and goals.

How do you develop orientation and training guidelines?

There are really three areas of training that effective organizations pay attention to. Orientation is aimed specifically at new staff members, and is meant to help them become familiar and comfortable with the organization. What is normally called training helps new staff people do their jobs better by focusing on the particular skills and knowledge needed for the position, and on how this particular organization applies them. Finally, there is professional development: education and training which goes on throughout a person's working life, and serves to help them continually improve at what they do. An organization that cares about the quality of its staff 's work will provide, or help staff members gain access to, all three types of training.

Orientation.

New staff members, regardless of their experience and skills, need timely and time-limited orientation to their positions and to the organization itself -- how it operates, who the other staff members are, what it considers normal, etc. Areas that need to be covered in orientation include the following:

• The structure and general functioning of the organization -- which positions cover which areas, the role of the Board, who supervises whom, communication channels, organizational policies and procedures, any specific rules or regulations the organization or staff might be subject to, etc.
• The philosophy and mission of the organization. How does the organization see its role in the community and the world? What does it actually want to accomplish?

• The structure and general functioning of the position. What exactly is the staff member expected to do, especially those things in addition to the obvious duties that go with the job title? What exactly are the benefits that go with the position? What kinds of resources do they have access to in order to do their job?
• The role of supervision. How, and from whom, do they get supervision? When do they have to check with someone before they do things, and when can they act on their own? Who will they supervise, and what is the role of supervision in this particular organization?

• The people the new staff person will be working with, including other staff of the organization, staff from other organizations, and people in the community.
• The day-to-day routine of the organization and of the site where the staff person will be working -- where everything is; who to ask for what; the guidelines for the use of computers, copiers, and other office equipment; who answers which phones; when lunch and payday are; where to park; how to use health and other benefits; etc. This area would also include instruction in security procedures, the use of office equipment, software, phone and fax systems, etc.
• The organizational culture -- how people treat one another, and what kind of work behavior is considered "normal."

• Understanding of and familiarity with the population the organization serves.
• Understanding of and familiarity with the community and context within which the organization operates -- local supporters and detractors, local politics, funders, other organizations, etc.

Training.

Regardless of their previous background, any new staff member needs to be able to employ their skills in the specific ways required by their new position and by the organization. They also may need to learn new skills related to what they already know, since the demands of the position may be somewhat different from what he's done in the past. The organization's training guidelines need to take into account what it is about the position that is different in this organization than in others, and just what a particular new staff member is likely to need to learn.

There may be other issues here as well. The organization may expect participants to be treated in certain ways. Organizational vocabulary may be different than in other places. (Many organizations refer to participants as "clients," for example, while others consider that term disrespectful.) While some issues of this kind may be covered in orientation, others may be specific to the actual practice of the staff member's job, and may not come up until they are actually doing the work. The purpose of training, after all, is to ensure that every staff member performs their responsibilities as well as possible.

Professional development.

Many people and organizations believe that education is not a thing you get, but a process that continues throughout life. Effective organizations believe that training is an educational process that continues throughout one's working life, and that the more staff members can learn that relates to their work, and the more skills they can acquire, the more innovative and competent they will be. As a result, they encourage staff members to continue their training far beyond the basics that the organizations supply.

They may offer continuing in-service courses and workshops, and/or they may offer release time or financial support for external courses, conferences, and other learning experiences. Some organizations require that staff members spend a minimum number of hours a year in professional development; others leave it up to the individual, but provide some kind of support. The goal in all cases is to make sure that everyone in the organization is constantly learning, a circumstance that makes it possible to continually reexamine and refine the organization's practices, and to make an effective organization even more so.

In forming guidelines for orientation, training, and professional development, there are some general questions that need to be considered.

Who will actually conduct the training in each area?

Will it be in-house (i.e. conducted by staff of the organization)? Are there other possibilities (e.g., people from other organizations, from local colleges or universities, hired professional trainers or consultants)?

If it's in-house, will the position's supervisor be involved? The Director? If it's external, might it include college courses or professional development opportunities provided by the state or funders?

When in the staff person's tenure will orientation and training take place, and how long will they last?

Will orientation happen in the first week? The first month? The first two days? It's important that it happen early, certainly, so that the new staff member can hit the ground running.

How about training? Will it start immediately, or will you wait until the person has actually begun their job, and has some first-hand experience to build on? How much training will be standard, regardless of the staff member's previous experience, and how much will be tailored to the individual? By when should training be completed? A month? Three months? A year?

What forms will training in each area take?

A training program might encompass a mix of formal and informal styles and methods.

Formal training could include:

• Direct instruction, in a classroom or other setting, where someone passes on information, procedures, etc. through lectures, slides, or other "standard" methods
• Planned tours of facilities, neighborhoods, other organizations, etc.
• Reading materials to be digested on one's own, and/or directed research
• Apprenticeship: observing and working with one or more experienced staff for an initial period
• Attendance at regular meetings, seminars, workshops, etc.
• Learning circles (formal learning or research as part of a group of peers which sets its own agenda and requirements)
• Direct supervisory feedback on workI

Informal methods of training:

• Conversations and informal meetings with the Director, supervisor, other staff, participants, community members, staff from other organizations, etc.
• Learning on the job
• Keeping a personal journal to reflect on
• Visiting other staff and other organizations

What materials need to be prepared for the training?

Some necessary printed matter, whether self-produced or purchased, might include a staff handbook or brochure (description of the organization, philosophy/mission statement, policies and procedures, salary and benefit schedules, antidiscrimination policy, etc.); information about the community; information about the initiative or organizational issue -- statistics, demographics, arguments and counterarguments, economic information; information from one's predecessor; and academic or other material pertaining to the issue or to necessary skills.

How, and by whom, will the training be evaluated?

How will you know whether training was effective, and whether it was seen as helpful by the trainees? The trainee, the trainer, and the organization (probably in the person of the trainee's supervisor) are all possible evaluators. Getting feedback from all three is likely to give the most accurate picture.

The method of evaluation could vary from the use of a standard, multiple-choice form to face-to-face discussion to a longer, open-ended written evaluation. The method you use depends on the needs of the organization and the form of the training.

How will the evaluation be used?

Evaluation is futile unless it is actually paid attention to and used to refine the training process. Each set of evaluations can provide information to incorporate into the next training cycle.

In Summary

Hiring the right people and training them well are the most important things you can do to ensure that your organization is effective. Establishing clear guidelines for hiring and training is a way to help your organization get the hiring and training right every time. If you can develop guidelines that reflect the character of your organization, are consistent with its philosophy and mission, and speak directly to the organization's needs, you're well on your way to a great staff and organizational success.

You understand why you should develop guidelines for hiring, orientation, and training:

___The ways people are hired and trained constitute their first impressions of the organization.

___It will make you think about your plan and philosophy for the organization.

___It makes the hiring and training processes easier and less stressful.

___It's important to have them to show funders, potential employees, and the community.

___It helps to be better prepared for "surprises" that may occur.

___Guidelines make it more likely you will be able to find and hire the right person for the job, and that he or she will do it well.

You know how to develop these guidelines:

___You have decided who will develop the guidelines.

___You know the kind of employee you want, what the hiring process will look like, and what you can afford.

___You understand what orientation, training, and professional development all entail, and the differences between them.

For training:

___You know who will conduct the training in each area.

___You know when and for how long the orientation and trainings will take.

___You know what forms of training will take place.

___You know what materials need to be prepared for the training.

___You know how, and by whom, the training will be evaluated.

___You know how the evaluation will be used.

A PowerPoint presentation summarizing the major points in the section.

Job descriptions and selection criteria help organizations and job applicants understand what is expected from a person in a specific position, and help to determine whether an applicant is a good fit for that position. This section provides a guide for preparing job descriptions and selection criteria that accurately reflect what your organization needs in a position and that will attract the right person to fill it.

Why it's important to carefully develop a job description and selection criteria before you advertise a position

There are a number of reasons why having clear job descriptions and selection criteria are necessary.

• They define the position for the organization, for potential applicants, and legally. If there's any question about whether a staff member is actually doing their job, or being asked to perform duties that have nothing to do with their position, the job description should clarify the situation. It should also make it clear who's ultimately responsible for specific tasks or areas.

• They give potential job applicants a sense of whether they should apply for the job. The clearer you can be about the requirements, duties, and responsibilities of the job and what kind of person you're looking for, and the better you can represent these in your advertising for the job, the less time you'll have to spend reading applications from inappropriate candidates.
• The act of developing job descriptions and selection criteria forces you to clarify your thinking about the position, the kind of person you want for it, and the organization itself. Organizations often have to include job descriptions in proposals for new programs or positions. Sometimes, the act of composing the job description changes the whole course of the proposal, as people realize that they can use a position in ways they hadn't considered, or that what they had originally conceived was, in fact, unworkable. A job description can sometimes serve to define a whole program.
• Having a clear job description and selection criteria will help you write the copy to advertise the position, and will make the interviewers' task easier as well. If interviewers have a clear understanding of the tasks of the position, they can be much clearer about how to find out whether an interviewee can perform those tasks.
• Most important, a clear job description and selection criteria make it more likely that you'll hire the best person for the job. If you know exactly the person you're looking for, and have a distinct picture of what you want them to do, you're much more likely to find her than if you're simply hoping someone good will turn up.

Preparing a job description

While job descriptions and selection criteria are closely linked, it may make sense to work on the job description first, since that will help you decide what at least some of your selection criteria should be. A job description that includes administering medical treatment is unlikely to suggest hiring someone with a background only in heavy construction, for instance. On the other hand, there may be criteria that are important for any position you hire -- sense of humor, respect for the priority population, commitment to social change -- which, stated or unstated, may be as important to you as the particular skills the staff person will need. We'll discuss this issue further later in the section.

There are really three parts to the task of preparing a job description:

1. Choosing the job title.
2. Developing a list, often bulleted or numbered, of specific duties and responsibilities that the position requires.
3. Composing a capsule description of the position, including what it's meant to accomplish, requirements other than specific tasks (e.g., hours per week and expected schedule, whether weekend or evening work is required, necessary travel, etc.), and who the position supervises and reports to. This section may include wage or salary and benefit information as well.

Choosing a job title

It may sound like a small thing, but, in fact, the title you pick for the position can be very important in several ways. First, it can serve to define the job clearly, both for the staff member and for others who deal with them. The choice of title may also have a lot to do with the way the person in the position is regarded in the community.

A better title -- one that implies more responsibility or authority -- can attract better candidates, even though the pay may be no different from that of a position with a "lesser" title. One of the reasons for this is that a job title can not only boost self-esteem, but it can also be helpful when a person applies for their next job, making it easier to get a more responsible position.

A job title, then, serves to define the position and to define the place of its holder, both in the organization and in the community. As a result, its choice demands some serious thought. For the sake of example, let's go through the process of developing a job description for a position that we've decided to call Community Health Educator.

Developing a list of specific duties and responsibilities

There are really two steps to generating a list of specific duties and responsibilities. The first is to define the basic elements of the position (i.e., what it is you actually want the person to be able to do, or know, or be good at in order to do their job well. The second is to then identify the specific activities -- all the specific activities -- that the job requires. Let's take our hypothetical job, Community Health Educator, and look at the development of a list of duties and responsibilities for it.

Basic elements of the position

What do you want this person to do and know and be good at? Some of these things are skills related to the job title, which may be learned through education and training or through experience (perhaps in previous positions, perhaps otherwise). Others are skills required by the job which may not be implied in the job title, and some -- personality traits and characteristics -- may not be learned at all.

For a Community Health Educator, the specific skills learned from education and training might be:

• Teaching and facilitation skills, including a knowledge of appropriate teaching materials for the priority population
• Counseling skills
• General knowledge of community health issues
• Understanding of the medical/scientific causes and treatment of particular health problems -- AIDS, sexually transmitted infections (STIs), tuberculosis, substance use, lack of prenatal care, malnutrition, various forms of mental illness, tobacco-related illnesses, etc.
• Knowledge of the native language of a priority population with limited English proficiency. In this hypothetical case, we'll assume Spanish.

(Obviously, not all of these would be necessary for every position, and some might need skills not on this list.)

The skills acquired by experience that you might want a Community Health Educator to have include:

• Outreach skills
• Understanding of the community
• Understanding of the priority population
• Knowing the workings of the health bureaucracy -- HMOs, hospitals, state and federal agencies -- and how to negotiate them
• Understanding the social causes and potential solutions to particular health problems
• Familiarity with referral possibilities and procedures

Finally, there are the non-specific skills, traits, and abilities, some learned and some innate, that are required by the job:

• Clerical and organizational skills -- filing, record-keeping, doing paperwork accurately and on time, etc.
• Computer literacy
• Good written and verbal communication skills
• Self-presentation -- knowing how to act, dress, and communicate with different groups
• Interpersonal ability -- getting along with and being accepted by the priority population, the community, and colleagues; dealing with conflict well; and maintaining a sense of humor

Specific activities required for the position

Now it's time to come up with everything the person in this position will be expected to do. Remember that the list should include absolutely everything, whether it relates directly to the job title or not. For our Community Health Educator, the list might look like this:

• Develops and offers presentations, in the appropriate language (English or Spanish) and using appropriate materials, on general and specific public health issues -- including (but not necessarily limited to) HIV/AIDS, sexually transmitted infections (STIs), substance use, stress, nutrition, breast and other types of cancer, and tuberculosis -- to the priority population, community groups, populations experiencing increased risk, other professionals, and the general public.
• Conducts outreach to groups experiencing increased risk, particularly in the priority population.
• Counsels individuals on treatment of health and substance use disorders, and makes appropriate referrals.
• Distributes and resupplies written and/or audio-visual information on public health issues to all sites of the organization, other agencies, businesses, and other highly visible sites in the community.
• Recruits, trains, and supervises small groups of the priority population as providers of preventive and other health education in their communities.
• Testifies at public and legislative hearings on the need for health care, the health problems of the community, and other related issues.
• Runs an annual Community Health Fair in June.
• Establishes and maintains contact with the local community of health and human service professionals.
• Meets regularly with other staff of the organization to develop strategies for serving the community.
• Spends at least 50 hours per year engaged in professional development activities.
• Maintains up-to-date computer database of contacts and presentations, including the number of contact hours per week.
• Completes all paperwork required for the position in the prescribed time.
• Attends weekly staff meetings.
• Attends bimonthly supervision sessions with the Program Director.
• Serves on the Board's Public Health Committee, and attends full Board meetings upon request.
• Answers office phones two hours per week.
• Performs any other duties as required by the Executive Director.

This is a long list, but remember that these are all the activities you think this person will need to perform in this position. They may not do all of them at any one time. A year may go by without some of them being done, depending on the needs of the community and of the organization, but they're all part of their job, and they may need to practice any or all of them at a given time.

Some of these duties -- staff meetings, supervision, answering office phones, perhaps committee service -- are not unique to this position, but are required of everyone in the organization. Others -- outreach, maintaining contacts in the community, distributing health literature, paperwork -- are ongoing, and happen in the daily course of the job. And notice the last one: that's a catch-all, in case anything comes up that no one thought of, or in case the organization somehow changes before job descriptions can be readjusted.

Writing the capsule description

Now that we have a job title and have come up with a list of activities and responsibilities to go with it, it's time to tackle the capsule description. This will be a two-or -three sentence description of the job and its purpose, as well as any other major responsibilities it entails. The capsule description also includes some of the nitty-gritty information about the position (hours per week, schedule requirements, flexibility or lack thereof, salary or hourly wage, benefits, etc.), and specifies who supervises it. The capsule description thus gives an overview of the position and makes clear where it falls in the organization and what its logistics are.

Here's a try at a capsule description of our Community Health Educator position.

The Community Health Educator acts as the bridge between the organization and the community on issues relating to public and individual health. They, in addition to presenting health issues and education to the public in a variety of ways, counsels and makes referrals in matters of individual health care, and also recruits and trains members of the community to act as resources for health information.

The Community Health Educator reports to the Program Director. This is a full-time position (40 hours per week), and includes some evening and weekend hours. Scheduling is flexible within limits. Competitive salary and benefit package.

The job description is complete, but there are still some important questions left to ask:

• Does this job description make sense? Do all the functions of this position hang together?
• Does it describe a job that can be done well by one person in the time they're given to work at it (i.e. are there unreasonable expectations)?
• Does the organization have the resources to support the position (the time of other staff members, enough money to pay a salary consistent with what's required, materials, space, etc.)?
• Is the schedule reasonable?
• Was the supervisor for this position chosen for logical reasons based on how the organization operates, rather than merely for convenience or to massage someone's ego?
• Does the supervisor actually have the time and expertise to supervise this position?
• Will the position accomplish what the organization designed it to?

If you can comfortably answer "yes" to all of these questions, you've done a great job, and you can use your job description with confidence, both for recruiting applicants and for defining the position once you've hired someone. If some of your answers are "no" or "I'm not sure," then go back and deal with those issues right now, before you start the hiring process. The amount of time you spend now will only be a tiny fraction of the time those "no's" will cost you later, and won't even be in the same universe when it comes to the amount of hassle you'll save. Work with it until you know it's right -- you won't be sorry.

Developing selection criteria

Selection criteria for a position will generally fall under four headings: education and other formal credentials; job-specific skills and knowledge; non-job-specific skills and knowledge; and personal attributes and traits. And once you have a job description to work from, it should be a piece of cake to develop selection criteria, right? Well...yes and no. First of all, selection criteria aren't exactly the same as qualifications.

Qualifications are the credentials and experience that are stated as preferred or required for whomever you hire for the position. Generally, they'll go into your advertising, so that potential applicants will know whether they're eligible for the job or not, and they're the standard you'll use in screening applications. To some extent, especially if you have public funding, you're legally bound to them, and you could be challenged, or even sued for discrimination if you hire someone who doesn't have them over someone who does. (A lot of this depends on circumstance, and you're reasonably safe if you're not discriminating and can defend your choice. A lawsuit, however, even one you win, costs an organization time and money, both of which might be in short supply.)

But selection criteria might not be limited to qualifications. Your organization might want a particular kind of person as a staff member -- someone who's warm and engaging, for instance, or who will treat participants and everyone else with respect, or who just seems astute in certain ways. Or you might prefer someone who comes out of a particular background, or whose politics mesh with those of the organization and its staff members, or whose personal style fits in with those of the rest of the staff.

These criteria aren't even always conscious...but they should be. It's important to analyze and understand what your unspoken criteria are as well as your spoken ones, so that you can be clear about why you're hiring who you're hiring, rather than talking about "hunches" or "feelings" when you're arguing for your choice.

In developing qualifications, there are two ways to go: you can be as specific as possible, because you feel you know exactly what a person will need to do the job well; or you can be as general as possible, hoping to attract someone who may not look exactly right on paper, but who will in fact be exactly right once they get into the position. There are advantages and disadvantages to both approaches, and there's also a way to hedge your bets.

Qualifications can be either "required" or "preferred." If they're required, then no one without them will apply, and you're legally bound to them if you're operating under those kinds of restrictions (public education, many government agencies, and other publicly funded organizations are usually subject to such regulations). If they're preferred, then you have a lot of discretion about whether someone actually needs them or not. You can require some qualifications and prefer others. If you use "preferred" for at least some qualifications, you may have to read through more applications, but you may also find a gem where you least expect it.

Education and other formal credentials

How important are educational and other formal credentials to performing the duties in this job description or to the standing of the position? Do you simply require all your staff to have college or advanced degrees? For some positions, these kinds of questions have obvious answers: if you're looking for a doctor or a nurse or a lawyer, they'll need not only specific degrees but other certifications -- such as passing the Bar Exam -- in order to legally do the job at all. A psychologist or social worker needs certain academic and other credentials in order to be reimbursed for their work by insurance companies. But how about a teacher in a community-run school or an adult education program? Or a job counselor in an employment training agency? What does the person actually need, and are you possibly depriving your organization of someone really wonderful by requiring certain degrees? (Here's where "preferred" can be really useful.)

On the other hand, how will this person be viewed in the community? Who will they have to deal with as a colleague, as an advisor or consultant, or as a supervisor? Is it important for their credibility that she have academic credentials that match or exceed those of others in the community or in her field? If so, then those credentials must be required.

Our Community Health Educator, for instance, probably needs a degree in Education, Counseling, Public Health, Social Work, or something similar. Why does she need it? She's being asked to testify before legislative committees, to network with colleagues in the community, to make community and other presentations. She may not need the degree in order to do these things well, but she definitely needs it for credibility in these and other situations. Hiring someone without a degree in an appropriate area would be doing that person a disservice in this case, because it would put her at an immediate disadvantage in a number of situations.

Job-specific skills and knowledge

These are the skills and knowledge directly related to the performance of the job you're hiring for. A doctor needs to know about various diseases and medical conditions, anatomy, physiology, pharmacology, etc., and to be able to stitch up a wound, take blood pressure accurately, and give an injection in order to treat patients; a mason has to know the proportions of sand, water, and lime in different mixtures of mortar used for different purposes, and to be able to lay a straight and level line of brick or stone in order to build a wall. The fact that they both need to be able to do some basic math is not specific to either of their jobs, even though they couldn't do those jobs without it.

If you've done your job, you have a job description that should tell you just what the skills and knowledge are that the person you're hiring will need. Let's look at our Community Health Educator again, and determine what job-specific skills and knowledge they need.

According to the list of duties and responsibilities we developed for the position, the major part of the job revolves around teaching and counseling skills, particularly on health issues. The ideal candidate, then, would probably have some teaching experience, some counseling experience, and a knowledge of health issues, in addition to their degree in a related area, if you've decided upon that.

So which of these criteria will you require, which will you prefer, and which will you ignore? Unfortunately, you usually have to deal with the difference between "ideal" and "actual." If you can find a person with all these qualifications, and that person is who you want, that's great. But, in reality, it's more likely that you'll find a person you really like who has only some of these particular credentials.

The question you have to resolve here is what's most important to you. If the person you want has no health experience, for instance, are you willing to train them or get them trained in that area in return for the other assets -- perhaps personality traits, perhaps exemplary teaching skills -- they bring to the job? What skills or experience would you absolutely require regardless of how much you liked them in every other way? Teaching expertise? A welcoming personality? Knowledge of the workings of the health care system? It depends on the perspective of your organization, on what you believe can be easily learned in a relatively short time, and on what you regard as most important for this person to accomplish.

Non-job-specific skills and knowledge

Just as both the doctor and the mason need basic math skills, everyone needs skills and knowledge that aren't intrinsically related to their job title, but are required to do the job.

Some examples of these include...

• Familiarity with the priority community, or with similar communities
• Experience in a related, but not directly related, area of work
• Knowledge of a particular language
• Understanding of particular systems and how to negotiate them -- state bureaucracy, private foundations, health care delivery, public schools -- or of systems in general
• Excellent writing and/or public speaking skills
• Understanding of a particular philosophy that your organization follows: Jungian psychology, participatory education, Marxist economics, etc.
• Knowledge of public relations
• Familiarity with computers or other technology, or with particular software
• Clerical skills
• Organizational skills

The Community Health Educator, for instance, would have to have good communication skills (for public presentations, testimony, networking, and outreach), clerical skills, a high degree of organization (paperwork, record-keeping, juggling a lot of different responsibilities), and computer literacy (maintaining a database). She would also need an understanding of the state and/or local health bureaucracy, familiarity with the priority or similar communities, and, according to her job description, fluency in Spanish.

Some of these skills may not be included in job descriptions or selection criteria, because it's assumed that anyone of a certain educational or occupational level will have them. It's dangerous to make that kind of assumption, however; if you don't ask for what you want, there's a good chance you won't get it. Be direct about what the position demands, and you're more likely to hire someone who can handle it.

Personal attributes and traits

There are a number of characteristics which are neither learned nor acquired by experience, but are nonetheless important for success in particular positions. There are others you might expect from anyone in your organization, which reflect your organizational character and the things you believe in. Some of these may not fall in the area of qualifications, but many do. These could include...

• Initiative: the ability to get started and work independently when necessary, and to come up with ideas and carry them out.
• The ability to get along with a wide range of people, including other staff and community members, and to communicate respect to everyone.
• A sense of humor.
• Patience.
• A neat and well-groomed appearance. (In some positions, this could be a negative rather than a positive.)
• Passion for the organization's cause or issue.
• Particular characteristics of birth or physique. (Does the position require heavy lifting? Dance therapy?)
• Particular racial or ethnic characteristics, gender, or residence.. You'd be unlikely to hire a man as a sexual violence counselor for survivors of domestic violence, for example; or you might want to hire someone from the community you're prioritizing in order to increase your program's credibility in that community.
• Possession of one's own transportation, and willingness to use it on the job.
• Willingness to travel, work odd hours, etc..

Our Community Health Educator's qualifications would probably include initiative -- especially if she's expected to start the program from scratch -- and the ability to get along with people. But it's in this category of criteria that those unspoken standards come into play. The applicant's personality may have a lot to do with whether she gets hired or not, even though that's not directly stated. How she dresses may be important -- not messily, but not too well, either, so that she doesn't put off or intimidate the people with lower incomes with whom she's working. And there's that intuitive flash that individuals or hiring committees sometimes get that says "hire this person" or "don't touch this applicant with a ten-foot pole." That's why it's important to be conscious of all your criteria.

What criteria you should use -- both publicly and privately -- depends on what's most important to you. If a sense of humor is essential, then say so. If it would be nice, but there's already a long list ahead of it, let it go. What are the real preferences of the organization?

• Does the organization value certain personal attributes over knowledge and/or experience?
• Does it value certain kinds of experience more than others? (Some organizations will go out of their way to hire people who've been in the Peace Corps, for instance, because they feel that the experience leaves people with skills and attitudes that lead to great competence in community work.)
• Does it assume that one body of knowledge -- understanding of the causes and treatment of specific health conditions, for example -- can be picked up more easily than another -- e.g., understanding of low income or ethnic communities? Or vice versa?
• Does it have a philosophical commitment to hiring people with certain backgrounds or disabilities, or to diversity in general?

The answers to all of these questions will affect how selection criteria are chosen and applied and how job applicants are rated in an organization's hiring process. Ultimately, the selection criteria should...

• Be manageable: there shouldn't be so many that they'll severely limit the number of people who can apply, nor so few that they don't leave you with any way to judge applicants.
• Conform to whatever legal standards to which you are subject.
• Look like the profile of someone who could do a great job in the position, and whom you'd want to work with.

In Summary

Preparing a job description and choosing selection criteria -- both spoken and unspoken -- carefully and consciously are important elements in hiring, especially for a new position. The work you do on these preliminary tasks will help you define the position clearly and make the whole hiring process easier. But most important, it will make it far more likely that you'll hire exactly the right person for the job; and that's the whole point of the hiring process.

___You understand that a job description explains, in general terms, what the job is about, specifies who supervises the position, lays out the tasks the person is expected to perform, and provides the standard by which an employee can be evaluated .

___You understand that selection criteria is a list of skills, personal attributes, credentials, and other characteristics that a person needs to do a particular job in a particular organization.

You understand why it's important to develop a job description and selection criteria before you advertise a position:

___They define the position for the organization, for potential applicants, and legally.

___They give potential job applicants a sense of whether they should apply for the job.

___The act of developing job descriptions and selection criteria forces you to clarify your thinking about the position, the kind of person you want for it, and the organization itself.

___Having a clear job description and selection criteria will help you write the copy to advertise the position, and will make the interviewers' task easier as well .

___A clear job description and selection criteria make it more likely that you'll hire the best person for the job.

You understand that there are three parts to the task of preparing a job description:

___Choosing the job title.

___Developing a list of specific duties and responsibilities that the position requires.

___Composing a capsule description of the position.

___You understand that a better job title can attract better candidates and serves to define the position and to define the place of its holder both in the organization and in the community.

You understand that a list of specific duties and responsibilities includes:

___Basic elements of the position, job-related skills and personality traits, skills acquired through experience, and non-specific skills, traits, and abilities.

___Specific activities required for the position.

___You understand that the capsule description is a two or three sentence description of the job and its purpose, as well as any other major responsibilities the job entails.

___You understand that selection criteria may include education and other formal credentials, job-specific skills and knowledge, non-job-specific skills and knowledge, and personality attributes and traits.

A PowerPoint presentation summarizing the major points in the section.

Why is advertising important?

It's Sunday afternoon, and you've settled in for a long bout with the help wanted ads in the Valley Falls Distorter, the local paper. You're interested in some sort of community work, and you'd particularly like to be able to use your social work training. As you run your eye down the columns, you turn up some ads that you might be interested in responding to.

Which ad do you find most interesting? Most informative? The chances are that you'd write off the first one immediately: it doesn't tell you anything, and the organization obviously tried to spend as little as possible in running it.

The other two both briefly describe the jobs they're advertising, and each tells you a good bit about its organization as well. HRC implies that it sees itself as a professional organization -- it's requiring both a Master's degree and licensed social worker status -- and that it has at least a somewhat hierarchical structure ("supervisory/administrative responsibilities"). It sees the people it serves as "clients" who need to be "managed." It also tells you that it pays reasonably well, and that there are probably automatic raises at regular intervals ("starting at..."). It specifies both the required qualifications for the position and what it wants as application materials, and lets you know who you're sending them to.

Opportunities for Area Youth, on the other hand, has a catchy title, and implies that it's a grassroots organization ("devoted to social justice"), and that it sees its priority population as capable of community leadership. It seems to have a non-hierarchical, or at least less top-down structure ("collaborative"), and to value staff ideas ("room for creativity") and staff autonomy ("flexible hours"). By the same token, the "negotiable" salary may be fairly low, not unusual for a grassroots organization. This organization also is specific about what kind of application to send and who to send it to, but "prefers" its qualifications, meaning that it's willing to be at least somewhat flexible about them.

You can see from your reaction to these ads and from what you've been able to learn from them that it's important to think carefully about how you advertise for a position. There are a number of reasons, in addition to your need to convey information, that advertising a job isn't as simple as it might seem.

• An ad for a position is often the first impression a potential staff member will get of your organization. Somewhere out there is the perfect person for your job, and your advertising has to sell the organization to them. If the ad's muddled, unclear, or disorganized, applicants may think your organization is all those as well. If the ad doesn't give a good sense of what the position and the organization are about, they won't know what to think, or may gain an impression that's inaccurate. If the ad is specific, precise, and includes all the information the applicant needs, their sense of your organization will probably be accurate...and positive.
• Advertising that's carefully written and distributed can attract those you want to apply, and discourage those whom you don't want. The two ads above are written to attract different types of people. Those who don't like to work in a top-down environment, and who would prefer to have more say in their work, are more apt to gravitate toward Opportunities for Area Youth. Those who'd prefer a more traditional workplace, and who'd rather have an exact picture of where responsibilities lie and of what decisions they'll have to make, will probably be more comfortable at HRC. And the ads give, or at least hint at, that information.
• Advertising has legal implications for many organizations, especially those with public funding. Many public agencies (and many private foundations, for that matter) require certain language or certain characteristics in any advertising for positions that their money is funding. The EEO/AA (Equal Economic Opportunity/Affirmative Action) in the ads above indicates that the organizations are actively trying to attract and hire applicants from underrepresented groups, for instance; many states require that commitment from anyone they fund. The requirements listed in job advertising can have legal implications for some organizations as well, leaving the organization open to a lawsuit for discrimination if it doesn't honor them.
• In order to apply for a job, the ideal applicant has to know about it. Where and when you place your job advertising -- paid and unpaid -- can have a great effect on whether you find the right person for the job.

What do you have to take into consideration for the ad?

• Cost. How much can you spend on paid advertising in newspapers, TV, radio, or professional journals? Or, from another perspective, how important is this position, and how much are you willing to spend to get the right person to fill it? How much you spend will have an effect on
  • How long (in words) and how large (in size on the page and type size) the ad is
  • How many days or weeks the ad will run
  • Where the ad will run. TV is the most expensive medium, with radio next and newspapers the least expensive of the "Big Three." By the same token, big-city or large-circulation newspapers are generally more expensive than smaller local news organs.

• Of the issues affected by cost, which is most important to you? The length and/or size of the ad, the length of time it will run, the medium, or the market it will appear in? Once you decide which factor is most important, the others will fall into place.
• Does any information or particular wording have to be included in the ad, either by law or because of particular funders? If a funder is bound, legally or by its own standards, to particular hiring practices, it will bind you to those practices as well. Many funders require "EEO/AA," for instance, and/or language like "People from underrepresented groups and women are encouraged to apply."
• Remember that you can be legally challenged if you don't follow your own requirements, at least if that's possible (if you require a Master's degree, but no one who applies has one, you're off the hook). If you choose to hire someone who is, on paper, demonstrably less qualified by your requirements than another applicant, you have to have a clear explanation why, and it has to involve criteria and standards that were applied to everyone you interviewed. Remember also that lawsuits are expensive and time-consuming even if you win: a discrimination suit, no matter how trumped up, can derail your whole organization or initiative. If you want flexibility, "prefer" your qualifications, rather than "requiring" them.

What are the different forms of job advertising?

What absolutely has to be in any ad or posting you write? That varies from ad to ad, from medium to medium, and from organization to organization, but it usually includes most of the following, often only in a word or two for each item:

• A catchy title or headline
• A brief description, often only two or three words ("community health educator").
• Basic qualifications
• Full or part-time status
• Job location
• Starting date
• Either actual salary and benefits, or a phrase like "competitive salary and benefits."
• How to apply, and application deadline

Other things you decide to include depend on how you want to influence who will apply. You might want to provide some indication of the organization's focus or philosophy, if that's either a selling point or an identifier for applicants of whether or not they'd like to work with you. (Words like "collaborative," "democratic," or "grass roots" will attract some people and scare off others.) You might also include information about odd schedules or demands -- weekend or evening hours, retreats, etc. -- or particularly attractive features of the position, such as professional development or opportunity for advancement.

If you can give a clear idea of the actual character of the organization, you're more apt to attract people who are sympathetic to your point of view. It's also a good idea to be as clear as you can in a very small space about what the job is really like, so applicants will know what they're getting into, and you won't be wasting your own and their time. Choosing your words carefully will pay off in the long run.

An important issue to consider in writing an ad or posting is what you want the application procedure to be. A very common set of application requirements includes a cover letter (sometimes "detailing qualifications" or something similar, sometimes unspecified), a current resume, and the names of three references.

For newspaper ads, abbreviating as many words as possible can keep costs down for ads that charge by the line or by the column inch. You can also do some weeding out of applicants this way, since certain abbreviations will be recognizable to those who are knowledgeable in a particular area, but not to those who aren't.

A job posting that is mailed, e-mailed, posted on the Internet, or otherwise distributed to applicants and sources of referral without major cost, can be longer and more detailed, and may even include the whole job description as a separate page. You can, and should, take advantage of being able to use more space to try to make the organization and the position as attractive as possible to the people you want.

Writing an ad for radio or TV can be challenging, since the time will probably be very short (30 seconds or less), and you have to catch people's attention quickly and then hold it long enough so they know what you're talking about. Although radio or TV stations often will work with you on the writing and recording of ads, most applicants won't expect to find help wantads in those media, and they may not be worth your while.

How do you place job ads to attract candidates?

You can advertise a job by doing just that -- paying to take out an ad in a newspaper or other medium -- or you can also use other, often free, ways of distributing the information. Some possible ways of getting the word out to potential applicants are:

• Newspapers, both regional and local.
• Local broadcast media outlets (radio and TV).
• Mailings to other agencies and to the local office of the State Employment Agency, asking them to post the information that the job is available. Such mailings might include not just an ad, but a full or abbreviated job description and more information about the job. (The same is true for most of the other free postings on this list.)
• Internal job posting.
• Online job postings on your own and other organizations' websites, on large job search sites such as Monster.com, and on job search sites solely for nonprofits  (idealist.org, jobscoop.org, etc.)

• Direct invitations to apply issued -- either by mail, e-mail, phone, or face -to-face -- to people you think might be good candidates.
• Word of mouth through people who might know appropriate candidates.
• E-mail to a house e-mail list or listserv.
• Your own or other appropriate websites.
• Mailing to a house mailing list.
• Newsletters or bulletins put out by your own or other organizations.
• Conferences or other meetings of people from similar organizations.
• Postings in the community.
• Job fairs.

Where you place or post ads should reflect the type of person you're looking for. If you want someone from the local community, then your advertising should be concentrated in that community. If you'd like to attract a staff member from a particular ethnic or racial group, then your advertising should include areas where there are large communities of people from that group. If you want to reach a larger pool of applicants than the local community can provide, you might need to advertise in big-city media, or in a newspaper, station, or professional journal that covers the region or the country.

Once you've decided where to place your ads and postings, you have to grapple with the question of when and for how long paid ads should run. Cost obviously becomes a factor here. The longer a newspaper ad runs, for instance, the more people will be exposed to it, especially if its run includes one or more Sunday publications. Sunday papers often have larger-than-average help wanted sections, sections that most job-seekers make it their business to read. Thus, if you can't afford too much time, a Sunday posting may give you more value for your money. On the other hand, Sunday ads are more expensive, and you can often get an attractive break on a several -day or week-long rate.

A final time question is that of how long applicants should be given to respond after the last ad has run. Generally, a requirement that submissions be postmarked one to two weeks after the last appearance of the ad is about average. That gives people who saw the ad on its last day enough time to get their application materials together and mail them in time.

In Summary

The wording of your job ad or posting and where you place it can have a great deal of effect on whether or not you find the person you're looking for. If you pay careful attention to writing the ad and to placing it where the people who are likely to be the best candidates for your position will see it, you should be able to attract applicants who will fit in with your organization and do an excellent job.

You understand why it is important to be careful when advertising your position:

___It is often the first impression a potential staff member will get of your organization.

___Advertising that is carefully written and distributed can attract those you want to apply, and discourage those whom you don't want.

___Advertising has legal implications for many organizations, especially those with public funding.

___In order to apply for a job, the ideal applicant has to know about it.

___You understand that practical considerations for writing and placing an ad include cost, what is most important to you, necessary information, and the necessity of following your own requirements.

You understand that a job ad or posting usually includes:

___A catchy title or headline

___A brief description

___Basic qualifications

___Full or part-time status

___Job location

___Starting date

___Actual salary and benefits, or a phrase like, "competitive salary and benefits"

___How to apply and an application deadline

___You have considered all of the different ways of posting or advertising the job.

A PowerPoint presentation summarizing the major points in the section.

• How do you prepare for a job interview?

• How do you conduct an interview?

• What do you do after the interview?

The way you conduct an interview for a position is important and takes thought and preparation. The interview will most likely be the applicant's first in-person exposure to your organization and often sets the tone for what the job itself will be like. Preparing well for the interview will also increase your chances of getting the information you need to make the right hiring choices. This section discusses how to prepare for the interviewing process, conduct an interview, and follow up with candidates afterwards.

How do you prepare for a job interview?

We might as well admit it: this author has some definite prejudices about how the interviewing and hiring process should happen. As a result, the rest of this section assumes the following:

• The same people should screen every application (i.e. all members of a hiring committee should read all applications), conduct the interviews, and make the hiring decision. This is philosophically consistent with the ideals of most grassroots and community-based organizations, and makes for a cleaner process.
• All interviewers must be present for all interviews if they're going to participate in the hiring decision.
• All interviews should be face-to-face. If this isn't possible for some legitimate reason, then at least the first interview should be. You can learn a great deal more about someone from their physical presence than simply from their voice on a phone. If a second series of interviews must be held by phone, it is best that all interviewers have actually met the applicants first.

Choosing interviewers

The first question to be addressed in starting the hiring process is that of who will do the screening, interviews, and hiring. While an individual, especially in a small organization, might have the specific responsibility of hiring and firing, it's usually still a good idea to make the process a group effort, for several reasons:

• A group will give you a number of perspectives on the applicants, especially if the group includes community members and/or participants in the program or initiative.
• A group can significantly reduce the possibility of individual preferences or prejudices contaminating the hiring process.
• A group makes for livelier interview possibilities because it can generate a mix of questions and interests.
• A group is more likely to reflect all the people represented by a grassroots or community-based organization or initiative.
• If you're a democratic organization, a group interview is absolutely necessary to demonstrate that to applicants..

Given these reasons, it's generally wise to try to choose a representative group, including the position's supervisor (and/or the Director, if they're specifically responsible for hiring); at least one staff member; and at least one participant or beneficiary of the organization or initiative. It's probably desirable to keep the group to four or fewer, since a larger number can be seen as intimidating, and is difficult to schedule.

The next issue to resolve is whether everyone in the group should have an equal voice, or whether the Director or someone else should have either a stronger say or the final say on hiring. That should probably depend on two things: the values and philosophy of the organization, and whether one person has, in their job description, the sole responsibility for hiring new staff. If the organization sees itself as democratic or collaborative, then everyone should have an equal voice. If the Director, on the other hand, is to be held solely responsible for hiring, it's unfair not to give them the control that goes with that responsibility. (It's a lot like "no taxation without representation.")

Choosing applicants to interview

The materials that applicants send you in response to your advertising are what you will use to choose which of them to interview. That means that your hiring committee will have to read through all the applications and make some decisions about them. How will you do that?

There are two approaches to scoring or rank-ordering applications: formal and informal. If you take a formal approach, you'll do something like assigning points to each category you required or preferred in your advertising. Applicants aren't considered at all if they're lacking any of the advertised required qualifications (bachelor's degree, at least one year of experience in a related field, etc.). People receive up to a certain number of points for each criterion they meet (the better their qualifications, the more points). You can also add points for such things as living in the priority community, particular kinds or amounts of personal or work experience, etc.. Cover letters can also be scored, according to how well they're written, how much care was taken with them, and how well they're presented.

If applications are scored formally, then either (1) the scores are added up, and interviewees are selected by starting at the highest total score (calculated by adding all committee members' scores together) and working down to whatever number you've decided to interview, or (2) the scores are used only as a starting point, and the interviewers then hash out in discussion who they want to interview.

If you use an informal approach, it's likely that you'll simply work out your choices in discussion also, but without a scoring system as a guide. In reality, if you score formally, most people adjust their scores so that the candidates they favor score highest, anyway. The real work usually gets done in discussion.

No matter how you score, it's important to take notes on each application, so that you can remember what it was you liked or disliked about a particular individual, and also so that you'll have a record of what criteria you applied in case you're ever challenged legally.

Other decisions to make

• How many people will you interview? How much time do you have to devote to this process? How many good candidates do you have? Most organizations start with a target number they would like to interview, on average about five or six, and narrow their field to that number or expand based on the quality of the applications.
• How many levels of interviewing do you plan to do? Will there be a second interview of the two or three best? Or even a (rare) third interview? It depends on the initial number of candidates, on the importance of the position (you might be more inclined to do multiple interviews when choosing an Executive Director than when choosing a data-entry specialist), on whether you're torn between two or more applicants, and on whether you feel you got enough good information from the first interview. In reality, if you feel you have a good sense of the applicants after the first interview, a second is unlikely to change anyone's mind.

• How long will each interview be? If you're asking questions and providing information, 45 minutes to an hour is probably about what you'll need. If you're interviewing for a key position, or if you're asking applicants to also perform a task, you may need more time. It's generally unwise to schedule less. If a candidate is clearly unqualified, or clearly the wrong person, it's usually possible to cut the interview short without seeming rude or dismissive.
• What questions will you ask of all candidates? Both to be able to compare candidates and to protect yourself legally, it's a good idea to generate a list of four to seven questions that you'll ask everyone. (You can ask other questions, too, tailored to each person -- their background, their answers to other questions, your conversation, etc..)

• What questions should you not ask? Anything that could be construed as discriminatory, such as the racial or ethnic background of a candidate, whether a woman is planning to have children, or how someone copes with a disability, is off limits unless the answer is directly related to the performance of the job. (A paraplegic applying for a job as a firefighter can be fairly asked how they'll climb a ladder. In most instances, however, a person's childbearing plans are their own business, regardless of the nature of the job.)
• How will you schedule the interviews? This can often be one of the hardest parts of the process because of the necessity of coordinating the schedules of such a large number of people, all of whom have other responsibilities. The main choice here is between scheduling the interviews in as short a time as possible (all on one day or two successive days), or spreading them out over a longer period. Spreading them out will probably be easier logistically, but will mean a longer time until you can hire someone, more times that interviewers have to be brought together, and the possibility of losing a good candidate to another job while the process is being completed.

How do you conduct an interview?

The interview actually has two purposes. The first, obviously, is to give you a chance to meet and get first-hand information about the applicants for the position. The second is to give the applicants a chance to understand and form an opinion of your organization. Therefore, as you plan your interview you need to keep two questions in mind:

• How can you get the most accurate impression of each candidate?
• What kind of impression of the organization do you want to leave with those who are interviewed?

The answers to these questions are actually often connected through the structure of the interview and the approach interviewers take to applicants. How do you want candidates to feel in the interview? Comfortable? Under stress? Uptight? Relaxed? Intimidated? What kind of atmosphere do you want to create?

Establishing an atmosphere

Unless the job is one that calls for constant quick thinking and a rational response to high stress situations -- an Emergency Medical Technician, for instance -- and the main purpose of the interview is to see how the applicants can perform under those conditions, there is usually little to be gained by trying to rattle an interviewee. Just as, in the old story, the sun is able to make a person take off their coat by beaming warmth on them after the wind fails to blow the coat off, a warm and comfortable atmosphere is more likely to encourage someone to reveal themself than one in which they feel they must marshal their defenses.

By the same token, an interview that leaves an applicant feeling as if they've just had a good conversation with friends is also apt to leave them with a good feeling about the organization. The interview may be the basis on which someone decides whether or not to take the job you offer, or may be the basis of an unsuccessful candidate's later positive or negative reports to others about the organization. The more comfortable you can make people feel, the better information you'll get, and the better they'll think you are as an organization.

Creating a comfortable situation involves thinking about both the physical and the social environment of the interview. We've already mentioned keeping interviewer numbers to four or fewer. The room chosen (a formal conference room with a large table? A small office? Someone's living room?), the way furniture is set up, who sits where -- all of this and more contribute to both the physical and social level of comfort. Every space has its own implications, making people feel more or less welcome and more or less at home.

The social environment is also determined by the tone and pace of the interview. Very few people are comfortable when others are aggressively firing questions at them one after another. Body language communicates volumes as well. Are most people in the room sitting in relaxed positions? Are they attentive? Are they smiling, or at least neutral, or do they look angry or hostile or nervous? Paying attention to these kinds of details will help you to create the environment you want in your interview.

Nuts and bolts

In general, interviews will include, in some order, introductions of all participants, information for the candidate, questions for the candidate, and questions from the candidate to the committee. There are some specifics we haven't touched on that you'll want to consider.

• How will you rate applicants' interview performance? For all the same reasons that you rated applications in order to decide which people to interview, it's helpful to rate interviews as well. While it's hard to design an objective rating system for a conversation, you can think about things you'd particularly like to hear (and will give points for), things you'd particularly not like to hear (and will subtract points for), personal qualities you'd like (relaxed, thoughtful, humorous, down-to-earth, etc.), and whatever else your team sees as important. It doesn't matter how -- or perhaps even whether -- you assign point values, but having everyone aware of the same issues will make it possible to consider all applicants on the same plane.

As with scoring applications, it might make sense to have a training session before the interviews, particularly for those for whom hiring is a totally new experience. Taking notes or making an effort to remember important features of an interview may not be obvious strategies for someone who's never been an interviewer before. Framing open-ended questions may take some practice as well.

• Who will do what in each interview? It's important to decide before each interview who's going to facilitate -- offer greetings, introductions, and explanations; give the basic talk about the organization; keep track of time; move the interview to the next stage; etc.. The questions themselves may be asked by different people, and everyone should feel free to ask follow-up questions or other questions specific to a particular person. (How did you end up living in British Columbia, when you grew up in Tierra del Fuego?) Depending on the group, the facilitator may change from one interview to the next, or even from one part of the interview to the next. The way this is done conveys an impression as well as the other details we have discussed.
• What information will you give to all the candidates? In general, the things you probably want to convey are:
  • An understanding of what the organization's or initiative's goals and purposes are, and what it actually does or intends to do.
  • Exactly what the position entails. You might want to give each candidate a job description in addition to discussing the position.
  • A sense of the community and/or the context of the organization or initiative.
  • The organizational structure, and where the position fits into that structure.
  • Specifics of hours, salary, benefits, starting date, etc..
  • What happens next in the hiring process, and when and how you'll contact applicants to let them know about your decision.
• Will there be any other aspect to the interview besides conversation? Will you take candidates on a tour of the community? Will they meet with people other than the interview team? Will you ask them to demonstrate their competency at something? It depends on how much you think it's important for them to know at this stage, and on whether there are any specific things you want to know about what they can do.

What do you do after the interview?

Once the interviews themselves have been completed, you'll have to choose the person to whom you're going to offer the position. Even if you have a rating system, regardless of how good it is, you're probably going to have to argue a decision out among the interviewers. In some cases, almost everyone will agree on one or two choices; in others, four or five interviewers will have four or five different ideas about whom to hire. The discussion, conducted in reference to either a rating system or a set of issues you've all agreed are important, should give everyone a chance to state and support their opinions, and arrive at a common, mutually-accepted conclusion. If there's a real quandary or disagreement about which of two people to hire, two ways to resolve the issue are to check references, which might give you a different perspective on one or both candidates, and/or to schedule another interview, especially one with a different format from that of the first. (You might interview both candidates together, for instance, or ask them to perform some task.)

In addition to agreeing on a first choice candidate, you should rank-order all the others you'd be willing to hire, in case your first choice turns you down, which is not uncommon. (In any field of six candidates, there will almost inevitably be at least one whom no one is willing to hire, and at least one or two about whom everyone is enthusiastic.) Then, you can offer the job to the number two person on the list and, if they refuse it, to the number three, etc., until someone you all approve of accepts.

Once you settle on a first choice, you have to notify that person and the other applicants. There's a logical order to this part of the hiring process, and, if you do it right, you can make friends even of those you reject.

• If you have asked for references, now is the time to check them. (If you haven't, you should ask for and check them now.) Most applicants will only list references who will give them outstanding recommendations, but it's important to check, anyway. Checking references by phone or in person will usually give you the best sense of the person and their fitness for the position. If there are any surprises, it's better to get them now than after you've hired someone. If your organization does CORI checks (state investigations to see whether someone has a criminal record) or something similar, this is also the time to begin them.
• Assuming references are satisfactory, call your first choice and offer them the position. Typically, they'll want some time to think about it -- a day or two, usually. It's appropriate to try to respect the need for time, but also to ask for a reasonable deadline, since the hopes of both the other candidates and the organization are dependent on this person's decision. No one else should be notified until their decision is made. If they refuse the position, the next person on the list should be called immediately.

• As soon as a candidate accepts, all other interviewees should be called personally by a member of the interview team and told that the position has been offered to someone else who has accepted it. It's important to be honest -- but tactful -- if people ask why they weren't chosen. (Often the answer is easy: the other person was more experienced in the field, for example. If you found the person obnoxious, it may be harder to say something both truthful and supportive, but it is important that you try.) It's also important to tell someone if they were in fact a good candidate who might have been hired under other circumstances; such a person should be encouraged to apply for another position with the organization if the opportunity arises. An organization can make many friends this way, and can sometimes end up with good staff members as well.
• An individually-addressed form letter should go out to everyone who applied but wasn't interviewed, explaining that the position has been filled. The letter should stress the quality of the applicant pool, the difficult choices the committee had to make, etc.. Even a rejection letter can leave a good taste in people's mouths if it's done well. (These letters could actually go out much earlier if you're sure that you won't go into this pool if you find no one else in your initial search.)
• The person who took the job should be sent an official letter stating the terms of employment (salary, benefits, hours and schedule, job description, probationary period if any, start date, etc.), and a contract to sign if that's something your organization uses. This letter can be discussed in the acceptance call, so that your new staff member knows it's coming.

It's been a long process, and has taken a lot of time and the contributions of many people, but you've hired someone you really like, and are confident that they'll do a great job for you. The effort was worth it. Congratulations!

In Summary

If you think carefully about the nature of the interviews you conduct with candidates for a position, you should be able to find someone who's a great match for both the position and the organization. In addition, you can make friends for the organization by your handling of the process and your treatment of unsuccessful applicants.

You understand why the interview process needs to be considered carefully:

___The interview will be, for most applicants, their first face-to-face exposure to the organization.

___The interview often sets the tone for what the job itself will be like.

___The form of the interview will have a great deal to do with what you actually find out about the applicants.

Before the interview:

___You have chosen interviewers.

___You have decided how many people to interview.

___You have decided how many levels of interviewing you plan to do.

___You have decided how long each interview will be.

___You have decided what questions you will ask of all candidates.

___You know what questions you should not ask.

___You have chosen applicants to interview.

___You know how you will schedule the interviews.

___You have worked to establish a comfortable atmosphere.

___You have decided how you will rate applicants' interview performance.

___You have decided who will do what in each interview.

___You have decided what information you will give to all candidates.

___You have decided if there will be any other aspect to the interview besides conversation.

After the interview:

___You have checked references.

___Call your first choice and offer her the position.

___After a candidate accepts, call other interviewees and tell them the position has been offered to someone else.

___Send an individually-addressed form letter out to those who applied but weren't interviewed, explaining the position has been filled.

___Send a letter to the person who took the job stating the terms of employment and (possibly) a contract to sign.

A PowerPoint presentation summarizing the major points in the section.

• What are personnel policies?

• What are general policies?

• Why are hiring and employment status procedures important?

• What are everyday policies and procedures?

Congratulations! If you have gotten this far you have the headache of developing personnel policies; that means you have an organization.

By now you know that the most important asset an organization can have is the people who work or volunteer for it. Personnel policies are of the utmost importance to keep the organization running smoothly and the morale of the workers high.

What are personnel policies?

Personnel policies define the treatment, rights, obligations, and relations of people in an organization. They are the blueprints by which the organization runs--the rules and procedures that protect workers (and the organization) from experiencing harm, put them in control of their jobs, and keep them from making errors that will hurt the organization or one another. It may be hard work to devise a set of policies, but when situations arise that need answers, you'll see how helpful they are.

What do personnel policies include?

Personnel policies may differ significantly from organization to organization, but they must contain instructions and rules for dealing with issues and overcoming obstacles that may present themselves both during normal working days and under extraordinary circumstances. They touch on relationships (staff/staff, staff/administration, etc.), expectations (hours worked, schedules, what defines the work of a position), and ways of doing things (who gets to use what equipment when, how to arrange a sick day) that affect employees' lives and the running of the organization.

What do personnel policies look like?

Personnel policies should be written in clear, understandable language, so that everyone knows exactly what they mean and as little as possible is left open to interpretation. In many organizations, employees are either given their own copy, or are encouraged to read the policies in some easily available form (e.g., online at the organization's website, printed and kept in an easily accessible location). It is extremely important that everyone in the organization be reasonably familiar with these policies, and that they always be readily available to any employee.

In writing personnel -- or any -- policies, it is important to consider the philosophy and mission of your organization. Personnel policies should be consistent with your beliefs and mission: it only makes sense that the way you treat staff should reflect the way you want participants to be treated. If you think carefully about this issue when developing organizational policy, you're that much more likely to succeed in your mission.

There are essentially three types of personnel policies that you will need to develop for your organization.

• General Policies have to do with the basic structure, philosophy, and rules of the organization. They deal with issues ranging from equal opportunity in hiring and advancement to conflicts of interest, sexual harassment, alcohol in the workplace, and Internet usage.
• Hiring and Employment Status Policies involve the worker's employment relationship with the organization -- hiring, firing, and everything in between. Here is where pay scale, title, promotions, and performance reviews are laid out. These policies also cover benefits, employees' rights, and reasons for termination.
• Everyday Procedural Policies deal with issues that affect the everyday life of the worker (or volunteer), and the day to day operation of the organization. They generally include the hours employees are required to be at work, how workers should dress, when they get paid, and issues of security, as well as guidelines for how things are done in the organization.

What are general policies?

General policies include a general, variety of things that affect the working environment and structure of an organization.

These may address:

• Equal Employment Opportunity is a policy designed to protect the worker from unfair employment discrimination based on their personal characteristics (gender, race, age, disability, sexual orientation, etc.). It usually declares that workers are not to be discriminated against (i.e. denied a position, a promotion, or a raise; unfairly criticized or given an unfair negative evaluation; paid less than another worker in similar circumstances and with similar background, experience, and seniority; etc.) under any circumstances, often specifying as many as possible of the conditions which are covered under this declaration. It also outlines the recourse a worker has if they feel they have experienced discrimination.
• Anti-Harassment Policy protects the worker from being exposed to a hostile working environment. This policy generally outlines what the organization considers to be appropriate and inappropriate behavior and what it considers sexual or other (racial, personal, etc.) harassment. It should explain the procedures for reporting harassment, the courses of action to be taken by both accuser and accused, and the way the organization will deal with the problem. The policy should also cover appeals and other recourse if one of the parties feels unfairly treated in the resolution process.
• Alcohol and Drugs in the Workplace may seem to imply obvious policy, but, in fact, an organization should state specifically what substance use, if any, it will tolerate during working hours or on its property. Clarity from the outset about organizational rules and the consequences of breaking them can save a lot of trouble later. Some organizations may even have rules about what employees can do outside of work. A drug treatment program, for instance, may require employees to be completely drug free: violations -- under any circumstances -- might lead to immediate dismissal.
• The Use of Computers and Other Electronic Equipment has become a major issue in many workplaces. Organizations now find it necessary to develop policy determining what can be stored on an employee's computer (Games? Access codes? E-mail?), time and destination guidelines for Internet usage, etc.. Lack of these guidelines can lead not only to wasted work time (there are some very addictive games out there), but to intolerable working conditions or even sexual or other harassment charges sparked by an employee's downloading and distributing of pornographic or extremist material.
• Contracts and Agreements Policy covers the protocol for entering into contracts and agreements using the organization's name. There should be a procedure employees must follow to be authorized to act legally for the organization, and there should be policies governing who can get that authorization, and under what circumstances. This policy should also cover less formal agreements -- joint events with other agencies, donations of goods or services, etc..

• Confidentiality is often vital in health and human service work. It is absolutely necessary that the employee know what she can and cannot divulge about the organization and its participants or beneficiaries. Confidentiality policies may cover password access and usage, access to particular computer and paper files, what information about participants is confidential, and which employees -- and who else (participants themselves, other agencies, etc.) -- can have access to which information and how they get it. In many cases, such as in publicly-funded research projects, agencies or organizations are required to file state and federal documents outlining their confidentiality policies.

• Conflicts of Interest arise when someone finds themself representing both sides of an issue, or when their position makes it possible for them to advance their own interests. A board member of an organization who is paid for services by that organization may be in conflict of interest, for instance. A staff member who serves on an oversight committee that certifies her employer might likewise be in conflict. Organizational policy should clearly spell out what constitutes conflict of interest and how to avoid it.

• Political Activities at Work may be forbidden in an organization (see Contracts and Agreements Policy above), may lead to conflict of interest, or may simply be part of what people in your organization do. This policy should specify what sort of political activity -- lobbying, campaigning, advocacy, expressing opinions, etc. -- will be tolerated in the workplace and as part of the job. (Trying to convince participants, through the activities of a program, to vote a certain way, for instance, might be totally inconsistent with the goals of one organization and fine in another.)
• Safety is obviously an important concern in any workplace, for reasons ranging from human concern for employees to the costs of lost work time and liability suits. Safety policies should aim at maintaining a safe workplace for everyone. They may include such varied issues as the use of machinery, how late an employee can stay in the building alone, and behavior with program participants (A female therapist working with male sex offenders may want to make sure that they're not alone in the building with them, for instance). Policies should include back-up systems, contingency plans, and protocols for dealing with occasions when the system breaks down, or when mishaps occur in spite of it.
• Smoking, although it fits within safety and drugs in the workplace, generally needs its own policy because people feel so strongly about it. Are you going to declare your working environment a smoking or a smoke-free zone? Of course, if you choose to make it smoke-free you should also address if, when, and where employees can smoke on breaks. Policy here might also address incentives for quitting, which could lower organizational and individual health costs.
• Grievance Procedures are important for nearly all personnel policies. These are the procedures by which employees can make complaints if they think they have been subject to discrimination, harassment, unfair labor practices, or other problems in the workplace. Your organization might want to have a general form of grievance procedures for all circumstances, with specifics built into the appropriate sections of the personnel policy. An employee might have to do something a little different to file a grievance about a safety violation than about a harassment problem, but the same person (assuming they're not named or involved -- there needs to be a backup in case that happens) might be designated to handle all grievances and start the appropriate process to resolve the situation.
• How Employees are Expected to Relate to the Priority Population and the Community is another reflection of the mission and philosophy of the organization. If an organization sees itself as "empowering" or "collaborative" or "democratic," it may want to be sure that staff members treat everyone with a high level of respect, and may encourage -- or at least not discourage -- friendships between staff members and participants. If an organization sees itself as "professional" or enforces particular laws and regulations, it may discourage familiarity between staff and participants, and may foster treatment that is distant and "objective." For many organizations on both sides of this philosophical and service divide, the character of these relationships is extremely important. If your organization has a strong philosophical bias about how employees should relate to others outside the organization -- including other organizations -- it should be written into your personnel policy.

What are hiring and employment status policies, and why are they important?

These policies govern the relationship between the employee and the organization, and outline how each must treat the other. Ideally, they protect both employees and organizations from harm and from damage to their reputations. They also make clear exactly what the expectations of the organization are and serve in many ways to define how the organization views itself and its attitude toward work and the workplace.

Some of the most common and important hiring and employment status policies cover:

• Hiring procedures and orientation
• Title and pay
• Benefits, deductions, and travel
• Personnel files
• Performance reviews
• Promotions
• Work-related problems
• Reasons for termination

Hiring Procedures & Orientation

First impressions are extremely important in how an employee will view their job, and in how they are likely to approach it in the long run. Both hiring procedures -- how a successful applicant is contacted, offered the job, welcomed, etc. -- and orientation -- what's covered, how much time a new employee is given to adjust, who's involved -- are tremendously influential in forming that first impression. If the person feels that they're being treated well, that the organization is glad to have them, and that it and the people in it are concerned that she have the information and background to do a good job, it's likely that they'll respond by trying hard to live up to expectations and to treat others as well as they treat them.

Title and Pay

Title and pay are generally very important issues. Recognition and earning money are the two main reasons most people work, after all. While titles are often arbitrary -- they don't always reflect the nature or the amount of work a person does -- they may correspond to pay scales or affect future employment, and thus take on more importance. Sometimes an organization with limited funds may give a prestigious title to make up for an inability to pay a high salary. In any case, both should be clear from the outset. The title should correspond as closely as possible to the actual work of the position, and to the amount of status in the organization or in the community that the employee needs to do their job (See Chapter 10, Section 2: Preparing Job Descriptions and Selection Criteria). If the organization operates that way, each title should have a pay range that makes sense in relation to the pay of all employees. There should be some rational method of determining where a particular employee should start on that pay scale, based on such criteria as their past experience, credentials, and reputation. And there should be guidelines for title changes and pay increases.

Benefits

It should be clear what benefits an employee is entitled to: they should be spelled out for each position in the organization.

• Medical and dental: If the organization provides a plan for either or both medical and dental coverage, it may not necessarily pay all of the costs. How much an employee pays and how much the organization pays for any plans offered, exactly what is covered, and what the employee gets or doesn't if they don't participate in the plan, should be specified. (Most plans have their own information packets for each employee, so that policy needn't describe the plan itself.)
• Long- and short-term disability: These benefits often go along with medical/dental, and the same guidelines apply: spell out who pays how much, what do benefits cover and for how long, etc..
• Travel reimbursement: An organization may choose to reimburse employees for all or part of their work-related travel. This usually does not include travel from home to work, but does include travel between workplace sites, travel to meetings and conferences, etc.. Travel reimbursement can be either a direct refund of money spent (the price of an airline ticket to a conference, based on the presentation of a receipt, for instance) or a standard per-mile cost for driving (the state of Massachusetts, for example, currently reimburses for driving at $0.31 a mile). It may include all expenses (conference fees, hotel and food costs, and mileage reimbursement ) or only some of them. Sometimes there are different rules for in-state and out-of-state travel. If you reimburse people for travel, be consistent, and treat everybody in the organization equally.
• Vacation: How much do people get? Does it increase with time in the job? Can it be taken at any time, or are there restrictions? How soon after beginning work can vacation time be taken? What must employees do to arrange vacation time?
• Family and personal leave: How much do people get? Is it paid or unpaid? Under what circumstances can it be taken?
• Retirement plans (e.g., 401K)
• Life Insurance

Deductions

Payment on some benefits may be pre-tax, which affects the amount of money a person is effectively being taxed on. For example an organization may take the money for health insurance or a train pass out of an employee's gross salary, at the same time providing a benefit and reducing the amount of the employee's taxable income.

Personnel Files

These are the records that most organizations, for both legal and internal reasons, keep of everyone who works for them. A personnel file may begin with a potential employee's resume and cover letter and continue on through a twenty-year career. It might include reports of regular performance reviews, citations of particularly good work, news articles, records of instances of poor judgment or failure to do a job properly -- anything, in other words, that relates to the employee's work life. Personnel files are often used for determining promotions and pay raises, for documenting inadequate or inappropriate performance so an employee can be terminated if necessary, or for building a record of good performance that the employee can bring with them to their next job. Personnel files also provide tax, personal, and emergency contact information.

Your personnel policy should state what goes into an employee's personnel file, who (including the employee themself) has access to each file, and how it will be used.

Performance Reviews

The reasons for reviewing an employee's performance may seem obvious; however, the reasons for and the frequency of reviews should be part of your personnel policy. Policies regarding reviews might make clear:

• Who does the reviewing.
• The standards or criteria used for reviewing the employee's performance (Their job description? Some other objective standard? The work of others in similar jobs? Evaluations by participants or colleagues or supervisors? All or some of the above? Whether reviews are oral or written.)
• The actual form that reviews will take. (Many organizations ask employees to write a self-evaluation to begin the process, for instance, and then focus on their own sense of their strengths and weaknesses. Others may involve observations by supervisors or other methods.)
• How often reviews occur.
• The consequences of a positive or negative performance review on an employee's job and advancement opportunities.

Employee Rights/Workplace Conditions

Laws in many states, as well as some federal laws, describe certain rights accorded to employees in at least some organizations. These may include the right to a hearing before being fired; the right to appeal an administrative decision; the right not to be fired for their political or other views; etc.. If employees belong to a union, their contracts may also address these types of issues. Many states and the federal government also have laws about what physical or psychological conditions people can be subjected to in the workplace -- unhealthy environments of many kinds may be illegal. Whether the rights and conditions your organization supports are governed by the legal system or simply by the organization's good will, they should be spelled out in your personnel policy, along with the procedures to complain about their not being maintained.

Promotions

If your organization has room for advancement, it's important to think about and set down exactly what the process for advancement is.

• Is there a ladder (i.e., a logical progression of advancement through the organization)?
• How does one advance? (Is it a matter of time? Performance? Experience?)
• How will it affect the employee's pay rate? Title?

Work-Related Problems

These are probably some of the most eagerly read pages in any personnel policy manual. Work-related problems can run the gamut from the interpersonal (two employees who are unable to get along, for instance) to the personal (deep depression that affects job performance) to the logistical (the loss of important files). What are the organization's responses to these issues? The interpersonal could be handled through in-house mediation, perhaps, but it's important that workers know whom to approach about the problem (and who the backup is if the designated mediator is the problem). For personal problems, is there an employee assistance program, or at least some support for getting help? For the logistical, how will you develop systems to avoid the situation and/or provide organizational help for the employee so they don't continue to have the problem? All of these types of questions -- and any others you can envision: use your imagination, because nothing you dream up will be more outlandish than things that actually happen in workplaces every day -- need to be dealt with, at least in a general way.

Reasons for Termination

It is unfortunate, but occasionally you hire the wrong person, or hire the right person at the wrong time in their life. Firing someone is very difficult and traumatic for both parties involved. It is only fair that employees know if the organization is dissatisfied with their work, and have both help and time to try to improve. It is also only fair, after a certain point, when the employee's efforts have been unsuccessful or haven't been made at all, that the organization be able to terminate that employee and hire someone who will be able to do the job.

Your personnel policy should spell out the reasons for which employees can be terminated, the steps that will be taken before termination becomes a reality, the necessary time span, the required documentation (sometimes this is specified by law), and the people who will be involved. Policy should also cover what happens when an employee is terminated: Is there a severance package? Is there an appeal procedure? What if the employee wants to sue? Anticipating these issues will go a long way toward making a painful process as reasonable as possible.

What are everyday policies and procedures?

These are the policies that structure day-to-day life -- how things are done in your particular organization. They control work schedules, dress codes, how and when people get paid -- many of the things that can actually make or break the work experience. None of them alone may seem like a big deal, but, taken together, they can make the difference between a pleasant, productive work environment, and a depressing, unproductive one. For that reason, all of these policies need to be thought through carefully.

Work hours and flexibility of schedule

Some organizations set a very strict work schedule or require certain numbers of hours; others simply ask that employees do their jobs and leave the rest up to them. Whatever your organizational environment, it should be plainly described, so there are no misunderstandings about what's expected.

• How many sick days, paid holidays, vacation days, and personal leave days do employees get? Do they have to work for a certain length of time before they're eligible?
• What is the policy for taking time off? Some places are very relaxed and allow people to take their time as they need or want it. In other places, vacation or leave time has to be arranged beforehand. Are people expected to find someone to cover for them while they're gone, or will the organization arrange that? How will taking time affect each person's job?
• Can an employee work at home at least some of the time?
• Can workers vary their schedules (e.g., work four ten-hour days as opposed to five eight-hour days, or work any 40 hours in a given week), or are they set?
• Is there comp time? (Compensatory, or "comp" time is taken as time off to "pay back" hours worked over and above what the employee is paid for or expected to work.) If it is allowed, can it be taken at will, or only under certain circumstances? By when must it be used?

Overtime

Many people (police officers, for example) work with the expectations of supplementing their income with a lot of overtime pay, and families of some workers wouldn't eat without it.

• Who is eligible for overtime? Salaried employees? Non-salaried employees? Is it determined weekly (i.e., after 40 hours), or daily (i.e., after eight hours in a day), or by the day of the week (Sundays and holidays)?
• Are employees required or coerced into working overtime?
• Is there a limit to how much overtime a worker can work?
• How does one obtain overtime?

Payday

How will people get their checks, and when? Is payday absolutely fixed? (If someone is going on vacation, for instance, can they get their check a day early?) Can checks be sent to employees' homes or other addresses at their request? Is direct deposit at any local banks an option? Do employees have choices about how often they get paid (weekly, biweekly, monthly)? What must be withheld from their checks, and can they manipulate that amount (e.g., by claiming more or fewer dependents)?

Style of Dress

Does the organization have a dress code? Appropriate attire for one organization may be inappropriate for another. A street outreach worker wouldn't have much credibility with adolescents experiencing homelessness if they dressed in a suit and tie. By the same token, a Washington lobbyist in jeans and a t-shirt wouldn't be taken very seriously. If staff members are expected to dress -- or not to dress -- in certain ways, that should be spelled out. (Jeans might be okay, but not shorts, for instance.) In general, the more grassroots the organization, the less of a dress code it is likely to have.

Security

The need for security will vary with the organization, but there are certain things that will always need protection: cash, employees' handbags, and other valuables; confidential information (publicly-funded programs are often required to keep certain files in locked and/or fireproof cabinets); door keys and other means of access to the organization's offices, especially if they're located in a high-crime area; and staff members themselves, who may be experiencing increased risk of crimes such as mugging or sexual assault, especially if they work alone after dark. Recently, technological security has been added to these concerns, in the form of computer access codes, passwords, and the like. The key to policy in this area is to avoid problems before they arise by anticipating what can go wrong and developing systems to prevent it.

• Devise rules for the organization's and employee's valuables that minimize the chance they'll be stolen (or even seen). These can include having a locked place to put them, storing them out of sight, never leaving them unattended, etc..
• Policy for confidential and other valuable information of all kinds (see above) should specify where it's stored, how it's protected, and who is allowed access to it.
• Access to space can also be regulated by the distribution of keys, alarm codes, etc., and by guidelines about who can be allowed in what spaces when.
• Staff members can be protected by "buddy plans," procedures governing working or leaving alone at certain hours, and -- most important, but often ignored -- by making sure everyone is aware of potential dangers, so they can take their own reasonable precautions.
• Technology security depends on not storing security information where it can be found by any bright 10-year-old hacker, using care in determining how widely security codes and passwords are distributed, and, again, making employees aware of potential problems so they can think about what they're doing to prevent them.

Paperwork

Last but not least: if anything requires filling out paperwork, make sure it is clear which forms need to be filled out by whom, for what, to be given to whom, and how far in advance.

In Summary

Personnel policies govern the ways in which staff members interact with an organization and with one another. They protect both workers and the organization, and set the tone for what it's like to work in a particular place. How well personnel policies are written can make or break the work experience for everyone involved. The clearer those policies are, the more closely they are tied to the philosophy and mission of the organization, the more carefully they are drawn, and the more directly they address the situations they are meant to govern, the more effective they will be.