Section 13. Enhancing the Built Environment through Design

Suppose you were designing a new town or city. How would you want people to experience living there? How should homes, businesses, streets, parks, transportation, public spaces, and community facilities be arranged? How could the physical design support housing choice, accessibility, health, safety, transportation, environmental quality, social connection, and economic opportunity?

Or consider your own neighborhood or small town. What changes would improve residents' quality of life? Some improvements may be relatively simple, while others – such as redeveloping a former industrial site, expanding housing opportunities, redesigning transportation corridors, or creating mixed-use development – may require changes in land-use policy or zoning.

Communities use many tools to shape their physical environment. In this section, we'll focus on two of them – zoning and neighborhood design – and discuss how they can work together to support community-defined goals.

What are zoning and neighborhood design, and how do they work together?

Zoning and neighborhood design influence what can be built, where different activities can occur, how buildings relate to streets and public spaces, and how people move through and use a community.

Zoning provides a legal framework for land use and development. Neighborhood design considers how the different parts of a neighborhood work together. When they are connected through a broader community-planning process, they can help translate community goals into changes in the built environment.

Zoning

Zoning is a system of local land-use regulations that can specify how land and buildings may be used and developed. Local zoning authority and procedures are established and limited by state law, and zoning systems vary considerably among states and communities.

Depending on the jurisdiction, zoning may regulate uses, building size, density, height, setbacks, parking, open space, signs, accessory structures, landscaping, and other development features.

Common zoning categories may include:

• Residential. Residential districts may allow one or more housing types, including detached homes, duplexes, townhomes, apartment buildings, accessory dwelling units, or other forms of housing.
• Commercial. These districts may allow stores, restaurants, personal services, offices, lodging, entertainment, and other businesses.
• Industrial. Industrial zoning may distinguish among manufacturing, warehousing, logistics, research, production, and other activities according to their impacts and land-use needs.
• Office. Some communities have districts primarily intended for professional, medical, administrative, or similar uses.
• Civic and institutional. These may include schools, colleges, libraries, health facilities, government buildings, museums, community centers, and other public or institutional uses.
• Open space and conservation. These districts may protect parks, recreation areas, wetlands, waterways, habitat, farmland, environmentally sensitive areas, or other land intended to remain largely undeveloped.
• Transportation and infrastructure. Some communities identify land for airports, rail facilities, transportation corridors, utilities, or other infrastructure.
• Mixed-use. Mixed-use districts allow compatible combinations of housing, businesses, offices, civic uses, and other activities within the same area or, in some cases, the same building.

Communities may also use overlay districts or special-purpose districts to address particular issues such as historic preservation, environmental protection, design, transit-oriented development, downtown development, or affordable housing.

In addition to determining which uses are allowed, zoning may regulate:

• Density and intensity. Residential density may be expressed in dwelling units per acre or similar measures. Development intensity may also be regulated through floor-area ratio, lot coverage, building size, or other measures.
• Building height.
• Lot size and dimensions.
• Setbacks. These regulate where a building may be located in relation to streets, property lines, or other features.
• Building placement and spacing.
• Parking and loading.
• Landscaping and open space.
• Signs and other site features.

Zoning laws differ widely. A regulation that is permitted in one state or community may not be authorized in another. Communities should use current state statutes, local ordinances, comprehensive plans, and planning-agency guidance when considering a particular zoning change.

Zoning is also subject to federal civil-rights requirements. State and local governments may not use zoning or land-use practices in ways that unlawfully discriminate in housing. Housing-related zoning decisions should therefore be reviewed not only for their planning purpose, but also for their effects on protected groups and access to housing opportunity.

Variances, exceptions, and incentives

Communities often have procedures for addressing situations in which a property cannot reasonably meet a particular zoning requirement. The terminology and legal standards vary by jurisdiction.

A variance generally provides limited relief from a particular zoning requirement when the legal criteria established by state and local law are met. It should not be understood simply as permission to ignore zoning rules or as a reward for providing a community benefit.

Other tools may include conditional or special-use permits, administrative adjustments, planned development procedures, or similar mechanisms.

Communities may separately establish incentive zoning or density bonuses. These programs may allow additional development capacity or other benefits when a project provides specified public benefits, such as affordable housing, open space, infrastructure, environmental improvements, or community facilities.

Historic districts

Historic districts may be established or recognized at the federal, state, Tribal, or local level, and different types of designation have different legal effects.

Local historic districts may include review procedures governing alterations, demolition, additions, new construction, or other changes. Communities should distinguish these local regulatory requirements from federal or state historic recognition, which may not impose the same restrictions on private property.

Neighborhood design

Neighborhood design looks at how buildings, streets, transportation, housing, businesses, public spaces, services, infrastructure, and natural features work together.

The goal is not to impose a single design style. Instead, neighborhood design can help communities create places that are functional, accessible, healthy, environmentally responsible, connected, adaptable, and responsive to local history, culture, climate, and community priorities.

Neighborhoods may be understood through geography, history, culture, housing patterns, transportation, community institutions, public spaces, commercial areas, or residents' own sense of place.

Elements of neighborhood design may include:

• Street and transportation networks. Street layout, sidewalks, crossings, bicycle facilities, transit, and other transportation features influence mobility, safety, access, and how much people depend on private vehicles.
• Parking. Parking policies affect land use, housing costs, development feasibility, pedestrian environments, and transportation choices.
• Housing and building density. Appropriate density can support housing choice, public transportation, local businesses, walkability, infrastructure efficiency, and conservation of undeveloped land.
• Building placement. The relationship between buildings, sidewalks, streets, public spaces, and neighboring properties influences how a neighborhood feels and functions.
• Architecture and neighborhood context. New buildings can respond to local climate, history, existing development, accessibility, and community priorities without requiring every structure to have the same style.
• Trees, landscaping, and green infrastructure.
• Businesses and commercial areas.
• Schools, libraries, health facilities, government buildings, cultural institutions, and other community facilities.
• Parks, plazas, trails, natural areas, and other open space.
• Utilities and infrastructure. Wastewater, energy, stormwater, waste management, and other infrastructure should be located and designed with attention to health, environment, reliability, accessibility, and nearby residents.
• Walking, rolling, bicycling, and other active transportation.
• Safety and comfort. Lighting, traffic speed, crossings, visibility, maintenance, accessibility, emergency access, public activity, and other conditions can influence people's experiences of a neighborhood.
• Accessibility. Streets, buildings, parks, transportation, housing, information, and public spaces should consider people with a range of disabilities and mobility needs.
• Climate resilience. Tree canopy, shade, flood management, wildfire risk, building performance, stormwater systems, and other design considerations can help communities respond to changing environmental conditions.
• Housing choice and affordability. Neighborhood planning can consider whether people of different incomes, ages, household sizes, and abilities have realistic opportunities to live in the community.

New Urbanism and other planning approaches

New Urbanism has been an influential movement in neighborhood and community planning since the late 20th century. It emphasizes compact development, walkability, mixed uses, transportation choices, public space, architectural and landscape context, and a range of housing.

Many of those principles continue to influence contemporary planning. Current planning practice also places increasing emphasis on housing affordability, preventing involuntary displacement, accessibility, climate resilience, public participation, environmental justice, transportation choice, and acknowledging the effects of past land-use policies.

New Urbanism is therefore one useful planning framework rather than the only model for neighborhood design. Communities can draw from multiple planning approaches and adapt them to local needs and conditions.

The interaction of zoning and neighborhood design

Zoning can help create the conditions needed to carry out a neighborhood-design vision.

For example:

• Mixed-use zoning may allow homes, shops, services, offices, and community facilities to be located closer together.
• Allowing a wider range of housing types may expand housing choices.
• Appropriate density near transit can support public transportation and reduce the amount of land needed for parking.
• Building-placement and design standards may help create comfortable and active streets.
• Open-space and environmental regulations may protect important natural resources.
• Incentive programs may support affordable housing or other community-defined benefits.

Zoning alone, however, cannot guarantee a particular community outcome. Housing markets, transportation investment, infrastructure, public funding, development costs, discrimination, economic conditions, environmental risks, and many other factors also influence how neighborhoods develop.

Why use zoning and neighborhood design to influence the physical structure of your community?

• They can connect public investment with community priorities. Neighborhood planning can help identify where sidewalks, parks, transit, housing, infrastructure, trees, accessibility improvements, and other investments are most needed.
• They can expand housing choice and support inclusive communities. Allowing different housing types and price levels can help communities accommodate residents with different incomes, household sizes, ages, and needs.
• They can create opportunities for social interaction. Walkable streets, parks, businesses, schools, community institutions, and shared spaces can create opportunities for everyday encounters. Physical design can support interaction, although it does not by itself guarantee trust, inclusion, or strong community relationships.
• They can make everyday destinations easier to reach. When housing, services, schools, businesses, recreation, and transportation are reasonably connected, residents may spend less time and money traveling long distances.
• They can support physical activity. Safe and accessible walking, rolling, and bicycling routes can provide opportunities for active transportation and recreation.
• They can improve mobility for people who do not drive. Older adults, young people, people with disabilities, people who do not own a vehicle, and others may benefit from neighborhoods with accessible sidewalks, nearby destinations, and reliable public transportation.
• They can improve access to employment. Connecting housing with employment areas and transportation can reduce barriers associated with long or expensive commutes.
• They may reduce household transportation costs. Communities where residents have several realistic transportation choices may allow some households to drive less or own fewer vehicles.
• They can support environmental goals. Compact development, transportation choice, green infrastructure, energy-efficient buildings, tree canopy, and conservation of open space can reduce some environmental impacts.
• They can support environmentally responsible and climate-resilient development. Land-use rules can address energy and water use, stormwater, heat, flood risk, open space, transportation, contaminated sites, and other environmental concerns.
• They can help align development incentives with community goals. Where authorized by law, communities may use density bonuses, streamlined review, financial incentives, or other tools to encourage affordable housing, infrastructure, open space, or other identified benefits.
• They can support local economic activity. Neighborhood businesses may benefit from nearby residents, walking and bicycling activity, public transportation, public spaces, and predictable development rules.
• They can improve neighborhood comfort and character. Trees, public space, building design, transportation, lighting, landscaping, historic resources, and other elements can contribute to places residents value.
• They can support safer transportation and public spaces. Street design, traffic speed, crossings, lighting, accessibility, maintenance, and active uses can all influence safety. Different residents may experience the same environment differently, so community participation and evidence should inform safety strategies.
• They can contribute to quality of life. Housing, mobility, environmental quality, public spaces, access to services, community identity, and economic opportunity all influence how people experience their neighborhoods.

Developers, residents, public agencies, businesses, and community organizations may sometimes have competing priorities, but they do not need to be framed automatically as opponents. A transparent planning process can identify areas of agreement, legitimate disagreement, legal requirements, financial constraints, and possible tradeoffs.

When should you use zoning and neighborhood design?

Zoning and neighborhood design should be considered whenever major land-use, housing, transportation, infrastructure, or development decisions are being made.

Particularly useful opportunities include:

When zoning or land-development regulations are being developed or revised

Zoning codes change over time as communities respond to housing needs, transportation, economic conditions, environmental concerns, accessibility, changing development patterns, and other priorities.

Code updates provide opportunities for residents, businesses, property owners, housing organizations, developers, public agencies, and other stakeholders to understand the options and participate in decisions before regulations are adopted.

When a comprehensive, strategic, area, or neighborhood planning process is underway

Community planning can connect land use with housing, transportation, economic development, parks, environmental quality, infrastructure, health, cultural resources, and other priorities.

Because zoning is one tool for implementing a plan, it is useful to consider possible zoning changes while the broader vision is being developed rather than after the planning process is complete.

When a major development is proposed

Large residential, commercial, industrial, institutional, or mixed-use projects can significantly affect housing, transportation, infrastructure, environmental conditions, public services, nearby properties, and community character.

Review processes can provide opportunities to evaluate those effects, identify potential benefits and concerns, and determine whether changes or mitigation are needed.

When community or economic development is underway

New investment can provide opportunities for housing, businesses, jobs, infrastructure, public space, environmental cleanup, or other improvements.

Planning should also examine whether development could contribute to displacement, rising housing costs, environmental burdens, or loss of community-serving businesses and institutions.

When an area has experienced disinvestment or significant physical and economic change

Vacant properties, aging infrastructure, loss of businesses or employment, environmental contamination, housing deterioration, or lack of public investment may create opportunities for residents and institutions to rethink land use and neighborhood priorities.

Planning should begin with the community's existing assets and residents' goals rather than defining the neighborhood only by its problems.

When a neighborhood is experiencing demographic or housing-market change

Population growth, migration, new development, rising housing costs, changing household needs, or other demographic changes may affect housing, transportation, services, schools, businesses, culture, and community institutions.

Zoning and neighborhood planning can help communities prepare for growth and change while considering housing affordability, displacement, access to opportunity, cultural continuity, and the needs of both current and future residents.

Land-use policies have historically been used both to include and to exclude. Racially discriminatory housing practices, exclusionary zoning, segregation, redlining, displacement, and unequal infrastructure investment have shaped many communities. Contemporary planning should acknowledge that history and examine whether current policies continue to create unequal access to housing and opportunity.

Who should use zoning and neighborhood design?

Neighborhood planning works best when people affected by decisions have meaningful opportunities to participate, while recognizing that a neighborhood is also part of a larger community with broader housing, transportation, environmental, and economic responsibilities.

Participants may include:

• Neighborhood residents, including homeowners and renters
• Young people and older adults
• People with disabilities and accessibility organizations
• Residents from different racial, ethnic, cultural, and linguistic communities
• Neighborhood business owners, employees, and professionals
• Industrial and other employers operating in the area
• Property owners and developers
• Tenant organizations and housing advocates
• Health, social-service, and community-development organizations
• Transportation, environmental, public-health, and accessibility professionals
• Public-safety and emergency-service agencies
• Local government officials and public agencies responsible for planning, housing, transportation, parks, infrastructure, public works, and other relevant services
• Libraries, museums, arts organizations, and other cultural institutions
• Schools, colleges, and other educational institutions
• Faith communities
• Tribal Nations or Indigenous communities when land, cultural resources, treaty rights, or other interests may be affected

Including a group does not mean every participant will agree. Residents, property owners, developers, public agencies, businesses, and other stakeholders may have legitimate but conflicting interests.

A participatory process should make those differences visible, provide understandable information, and establish transparent procedures for reaching decisions.

Participation should not depend only on who has the most time, political access, technical knowledge, or financial resources. Outreach may need to include translated materials, interpretation, disability access, childcare, transportation, remote participation, different meeting times, and other approaches that help a broader range of residents participate.

How do you implement zoning and neighborhood design?

A strong neighborhood-design process connects community participation, technical analysis, legal requirements, planning, implementation, and evaluation.

Each community is different, so the process should be adapted to local conditions.

Create a neighborhood design plan

The first step is to develop a plan that describes the community's vision and the actions needed to move toward it.

Whenever possible, establish an ongoing planning structure rather than recreating the process only when a controversial development proposal appears.

Reach out to current and potential participants

Include residents, renters, property owners, businesses, organizations, institutions, public agencies, and others affected by neighborhood decisions.

Outreach may include:

• Mail to neighborhood addresses
• Email and text messages
• Community websites and online engagement
• Flyers and posters at libraries, businesses, schools, housing communities, recreation facilities, and other neighborhood locations
• Communication through neighborhood organizations, tenant organizations, schools, businesses, cultural organizations, health organizations, faith communities, and other institutions
• Phone outreach
• Direct conversations with residents and community partners
• Local and community media
• Neighborhood newsletters
• Community events
• Surveys, neighborhood walks, workshops, listening sessions, and small-group conversations

Do not rely only on digital communication or a single public meeting. Different methods reach different people.

Ask what residents value and what they want for the future

Begin with both strengths and challenges.

Questions may include:

• What should be preserved?
• What is missing?
• What creates barriers?
• What should change?
• What kinds of housing are needed?
• How should people move around the neighborhood?
• Which places have cultural, historic, environmental, or community significance?
• What services and businesses should be easier to reach?
• What concerns do residents have about displacement, affordability, safety, accessibility, or environmental conditions?

Develop a shared vision

A vision statement should describe the broad future residents and other participants want to work toward.

It might address:

• Housing choice and affordability
• Walking, rolling, bicycling, transit, and driving
• Parks and public spaces
• Local businesses and employment
• Accessibility
• Environmental quality and climate resilience
• Historic and cultural resources
• Public facilities and services
• Community identity
• Infrastructure

A shared vision does not require unanimous agreement about every detail. The planning process should document major areas of agreement and disagreement rather than presenting the community as though everyone holds the same views.

Develop outcome goals

Translate the broad vision into outcomes that can guide action.

For example, if residents want a neighborhood that is easier to navigate without a car, goals might include:

• Completing missing sidewalks
• Improving accessible pedestrian routes
• Creating safer crossings
• Expanding bicycle connections
• Improving public transportation
• Locating more everyday services near housing
• Reducing dangerous vehicle speeds

Generate specific objectives and recommended actions

Objectives should identify what will change, where, who has responsibility, what resources are needed, and how progress will be measured.

For example, instead of saying “improve walkability,” an objective might identify particular blocks where sidewalks are missing, intersections where accessible crossings are needed, or destinations that require better pedestrian connections.

Prioritize goals, objectives, and recommendations

Not every recommendation can necessarily be completed at once.

Consider:

• Community priority
• Urgency
• Housing and displacement effects
• Accessibility
• Environmental effects
• Health and safety
• Legal authority
• Cost
• Available funding
• Feasibility
• Who benefits and who may experience burdens
• Whether the action supports or conflicts with other community plans

Coordinate with nearby neighborhoods and larger community plans when issues cross neighborhood boundaries. Transportation, housing, watersheds, schools, employment, parks, and infrastructure rarely stop at a neighborhood boundary.

Identify zoning or other land-use changes needed to carry out the plan

Compare the plan's future land-use goals with current zoning and existing development.

A future land-use map or similar planning tool can help show where changes are anticipated. Geographic information systems (GIS) can be useful for mapping zoning, housing, transportation, environmental conditions, public facilities, and other information.

Not every planning goal requires rezoning. Some may be addressed through public investment, transportation projects, housing programs, infrastructure, development incentives, building codes, environmental regulations, acquisition of land, or other tools.

Where zoning changes are needed, identify the specific changes and the reasons for them.

Use the appropriate legal and public process

Procedures for changing zoning vary by jurisdiction and may involve planning staff, planning commissions, zoning boards, elected bodies, public hearings, mailed notice, administrative review, or other processes.

Learn:

• Who has legal authority to make the decision
• What notice and hearing requirements apply
• What standards decision-makers must use
• Whether the proposal is consistent with the comprehensive plan
• Whether state or federal requirements apply
• How affected property owners and residents can participate
• What appeal or review processes are available

Zoning changes should be evaluated on their planning, housing, environmental, transportation, economic, accessibility, and civil-rights implications rather than on whether organizers can simply persuade officials to support a predetermined outcome.

When disagreements occur, identify the underlying concern. Property owners, renters, developers, residents, businesses, public agencies, and housing advocates may have different interests.

Possible approaches include modifying the proposal, identifying alternatives, providing additional evidence, negotiating where appropriate, participating in public hearings, or using established administrative or legal processes.

Advocacy may be appropriate when residents want to influence a public decision. Advocacy can include meetings with officials, testimony, written comments, community organizing, media communication, petitions, demonstrations, or other lawful civic activities.

Effective advocacy should present accurate information, acknowledge significant tradeoffs, include affected residents, and use transparent decision-making processes.

Implement the plan

Approval of a neighborhood plan or zoning amendment is not the end of the process. Implementation may take years and involve public agencies, developers, community organizations, businesses, residents, funders, and other participants.

Establish responsibility for coordination

A neighborhood planning team, resident advisory group, planning agency, or other body can track implementation and provide ongoing communication.

Austin, Texas, continues to use Neighborhood Plan Contact Teams for adopted neighborhood planning areas. These groups work with city staff on implementation, review proposed plan amendments, and serve as points of contact for neighborhood stakeholders.

Maintain communication among residents, public agencies, developers, and other participants

Keep people informed about schedules, funding, construction, delays, design changes, zoning amendments, and other developments.

Communication should allow residents to raise concerns and receive explanations rather than simply reporting decisions after they have been made.

Support community-serving development

If a plan anticipates new businesses, housing, services, or community facilities, implementation may involve financing, infrastructure, marketing, technical assistance, property development, or partnerships.

Consider whether new development serves current residents as well as attracting new investment.

Encourage use of new and improved community resources

New trails, transit services, parks, public spaces, housing, commercial areas, or other improvements may benefit from community programming, communication, wayfinding, and ongoing evaluation.

Report progress

Provide regular updates on:

• Completed actions
• Projects underway
• Funding
• Delays
• Housing and displacement indicators
• Transportation changes
• Accessibility
• Environmental conditions
• Community feedback
• Changes that may require the plan to be reconsidered

Revisit the plan over time

Neighborhoods change. Housing demand, climate risks, transportation, technology, businesses, demographics, infrastructure, public funding, and community priorities may be very different years after a plan is adopted.

Review the plan periodically and ask:

• Are its goals still relevant?
• What has been completed?
• What has not been completed, and why?
• Who has benefited from the changes?
• Have housing costs or displacement pressures changed?
• Have accessibility needs been addressed?
• Have environmental or climate risks changed?
• Are transportation systems meeting current needs?
• Are new housing types, businesses, or services needed?
• Are there unintended consequences that should be addressed?
• Are residents still meaningfully involved?

Revise the plan when evidence and community priorities show that changes are needed.

In Summary

Zoning and neighborhood design are important tools for shaping how communities grow and change.

Zoning establishes legal rules concerning land use and development. Neighborhood design considers how housing, businesses, streets, transportation, parks, public spaces, community facilities, infrastructure, and natural resources work together.

Used thoughtfully, these tools can support housing choice, accessibility, transportation options, environmental quality, public space, economic activity, climate resilience, health, community identity, and quality of life.

They can also create or reinforce barriers. Past and present zoning decisions have influenced segregation, housing supply, environmental exposure, transportation access, and development patterns. Communities should therefore examine not only what a zoning rule permits, but who benefits from it, who may be excluded or burdened, and whether it supports broader community goals.

Strong neighborhood planning is participatory. Residents, renters, property owners, businesses, developers, community organizations, public agencies, people with disabilities, young people, older adults, housing advocates, and others affected by decisions should have meaningful opportunities to contribute.

Participation does not mean everyone will agree. The purpose is to create a transparent process in which different priorities can be understood, evidence and legal requirements can be considered, tradeoffs can be discussed openly, and decisions can be connected to a clear community vision.

A neighborhood plan is useful only if it can be implemented, monitored, and adapted. Zoning changes, public investment, infrastructure, development, housing programs, transportation projects, environmental improvements, and other actions may all be needed to turn a plan into reality.

The goal is not to create one ideal model of a neighborhood. It is to give communities effective tools for creating places where people with different incomes, ages, abilities, household structures, and backgrounds can live, move, work, gather, and participate in community life.